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THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

VOLUME 14
1977-1980

PERTH

Published by the

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN NATURALISTS’ CLUB

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 14

No. 1, September 30, 1977

Page

Some inimical effects of the Domestic Bee on the native fauna and

flora. By A. M. Douglas . 1

Some notes on the mammalian fauna of the western Nullarbor Plain,

Western Australia. By M. G. Brooker . 2

Observations on Quandong trees, Santalum acuminatum. Part 1. By

Mrs. M. B. Mills . 15

The birds of Bald Island. By G. T. Smith . 17

John Wollaston’s birds. By E. H. Sedgwick . 19

New or interesting records of sixteen bird species from Bernier
Island, Dirk Hartog Island, or Peron Peninsula, Shark Bay. By
Ian Abbott . 21

Further notes on birds of Benger Swamp. By E. H. Sedgwick . 22

From Field and Study: The Mediterranean Snail (Theba pisatia) on
Rottnest Island; Sighting of the Black Falcon, Lancelin district;
Mistletoe-bird feeding on Nightshade berries; Some notes on the
Native Poplar, Codonocarpus cotonifolius; Some recent bird
observations from south-western Australia; An Asian Gull-billed
Tern in Western Australia; Australian Pratincole at Lake
Mason; A survey of breeding seabirds on Mistaken Island; An
extension of the range of the Western Bristlebird, Dasyornis
longirostris . 24

No. 2, February 28, 1978

The Occurrence, Culture and Reproduction of Peripatoides gilesii
Spencer (Onychophora) on the Swan Coastal Plain. By Virginia
van der Lande . 29

Some notes on the herpetofauna of the western Nullarbor Plain,

Western Australia. By M. G. Brooker and J. C. Wombey .... 36

Additions to the avifauna of the Prince Regent River Nature Reserve.

By P. J. Fuller and A. A. Burbidge . 42

Notes on the Reproduction of the Shark Bay Mouse, Pseudomys

praeconis, in Captivity. By C. H. S. Watts and L. Spencer . 43

Observations on Quandong trees. Part II. By Mrs M. B. Mills . 46

Birds observed on a visit to Bernier Island in September 1977. By

Max Howard . 50

From Field and Study: Chestnut-breasted Finch, Lonchura castaneo-
thorax, at Osborne Park; Rufous Tree-Creeper, Climacteris rufa,
on the Swan Coastal Plain; Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes
chrysocome, at Two People’s Bay; Breeding after rain by the
Australian Raven; Breeding stations of the Fairy Tern between
Dongara and Lancelin, Western Australia; Spotted Crake and
Variegated Wren at Pelican Point; Brown Bittern in the Kimber¬
ley, Western Australia; Two new occurrences of the Mediter¬
ranean Snail, Theba pisana , in Western Australia; The Little
Shearwater on St. Alouarn Island, W.A.; Another observation of
the Pied Wagtail, Motacilla alba , in Western Australia; The Red¬
winged Parrot, Aprosmictus erythropterus, in the North West
Division of Western Australia . 51

No. 3, May 30, 1978

A Record of the Slender-leaved White Mallee, Eucalyptus joecunda,

in Raebold Park, Perth. By I. Lantzke and P. McMillan 57

Some unusual pollination mechanisms in Western Australian Wild-

flowers. By Eigil Holm . 60

Notes on the birds of Pelsart Island, Abrolhos. By Ray Garstone ... 62

Notes on Rainbow-birds and Fairy Terns on Rottnest Island. By 1.

Abbott, R. Black and N. Gucho . . 64

“ird notes from Gregory Salt Lake, Great Sandy Desert, Western

Australia. By L. A. Smith and R. E. Johnstone .... 65

Preliminary observations on the Koonac in captivity. By K. F. Ken-

neally and K. C. Pirkopf. 67

^lowers adapted to mammal pollination. By Eigil Holm . 71

Prom Field and Study: The Oriental Cuckoo at Dampier; Co-oper¬
ative breeding by Red-winged Wrens; Adult White-tailed Tropic-
bird, Phaethon lepturus, at Torbay; Rainbow Lorikeets at Safety
Ray; Tropical seeds washed up on Western Australian beaches;

Two Elapid Snakes, Denisonia pallidiccps and Denisonia suta
in the Kimberleys of Western Australia; The Port Lincoln Par¬
rot, Barnardius zonarius zonarius, feeding on Lerps at Kalgoorlie;

Food of the Western Bower-bird in the Chichester Range, W.A.;
Southern range limits of the Rufous-crowned Emu-Wren; Ecolo-

gical notes on Carnac Island Tiger Snakes . 74

Obituary: Ivan Carnaby (1908-1974) . 80

Correction .. . 84

No. 4, November 30, 1978

^ Population study of the Barrow Island avifauna. By E. H. Sedgwick 85

No. 5, March 30, 1979

Long-toed Stints, Sandcrling and other Waders at Lake Violet, Cen-

tral W.A. in midsummer 1977-78. By P. J. Curry . 109

A Ruff, Philomachus pugnax, at Bibra Lake, June 1978. By P. J.

Curry . 113

Unusual method of soil disposal during burrow excavation by the
^ Trapdoor Spider, Anidiops villosus. By Barbara York Main 115
be occurrence of breeding Roseate Tern, Sterna dougallii, at Lan-

. celin Island. By J. N. Dunlop . 118

^ note on Polyporus tumulosus Cooke & Masse (Fungi). By D. A.

^ Reid, R. Hilton, D. G. Reid and B. Britten . 120

^°me observations on the behaviour of the Red-and-Black Spider,

. Nicodanms bicolor (Theriidae). By R. S. Browne . 121

A new record of Asplenium obtusatum in Western Australia. By

p G. G. Smith .. . 123

^°nen loads on New Holland Honeyeaters at Qualup. By A. H. Bur-

~ bidge, S. D. Hopper and D. J. Coates .. 126

u bservations on wind-blown Superphosphate in native vegetation.

p By B. G. Muir . 128

r °m Field and Study: Nesting of Spotted Harrier near Northam;
Southward spread of White-backed Swallow on Swan Coastal
Plain; First record of Leach’s Storm-Petrel, Oceanodroma leu-
corrhoa in Western Australia; The nest of the Western Bower-
bird, Chlamydera guttata; A sighting of the Streaked Fantail-
Warbler, Cisticola juncidis, in Western Australia; Omnivorous
Tammars?; Three more records of the Kerguelen Diving-Petrel
in Western Australia; Second record of European Common Tern,
Sterna hirundo, from Western Australia; Breeding seabirds on
Carnac Island; A disjunct occurrence of Pilostyles on two new
p host genera . . 131

Corrections .. 136

iii

No. 6, August 17, 1979

A Baird’s Sandpiper, Calidris bairdii, at Eyre; a new species for

Western Australia. By P. J. Curry . . 137

The distribution of Theba piscina on Rottnest Island. By M. S. John¬
ston and R. Black . 140

Another discovery of Zygomaturus from the Murchison River,

Western Australia. By Jane Balme . 144

Waterfowl utilization of Lake Claremont during 1977. By K. D.

Morris and B. Knott 145

Observations on Bird-Plant interactions in the Stirling Range. By

G. J. Keighery . 150

Ants protecting Banksia flowers from destructive insects? By J. K.

Scott . 151

From Field and Study: Insect pollination of Suaeda australis; Bird
records from the Salt Lake, Culeenup I., Yundurup; Pollination
of Nematolepis; Dollar-bird, Eurystomtis oricntalis , at Karratha;

Little Corellas feeding on immature seed of Acacia trachycarpa;
Second Australian specimen of the Pintail Snipe, Gallinago
sienura; Further southward spread of White-backed Swallow on
Swan Coastal Plain; Aggression display by Whitc-naped Honey-
eaters; Breeding behaviour in the Atherinc fish Craterocephalus;

A sighting of the Brown Booby outside its recognized range;

A further Mangrove Kingfisher record from Western Australia;
Observations on the nest of the Singing Bushlark; Some Mistle¬
toe hosts from the Murchison and Wooramel Rivers, W.A.;

Sperm storage in Moloch horridus; Breeding records of the Grey
Honeyeatcrs in the Upper Lyons River district; Observations on
the nest and young of the Pheasant Coucal 154

Obituary: John Trott (1903-1978) 165

No. 7, February 29, 1980

Rushes, Sedges and Reeds. By G. G. Smith . 169

Notes on the Tuart tree. Eucalyptus gomphocephala, in the Perth

area. By J. E. D. Fox and S. J. Curry . 174

Pollen loads on honcyeaters in a Grevillea rogersoniana thicket

south of Shark Bay. By S. D. Hopper 186

The avifauna of Garden Island, Cockburn Sound. By lan Abbott 189

Blue-Green Algae in nectar of Banksia aff. sphaerocarpa. By Byron

Lamont . . 193

Long range sightings of bush fires as a possible incentive for Pleisto¬
cene voyages to Greater Australia. By C. E. Dortch and B.

G. Muir . 195

From Field and Study: An adult food plant of Ethon breve; Further
notes on Mistletoes from the Murchison area; Cattle Egrets in
Herdsman Lake; Additional record of the White-backed Swallow
in the South-West; The first record of the Arctic Warbler, Phyl-
loscopus borealis, from Australia; A record of Orthetrum cale-
donicum feeding on another dragonfly; An unusual occurrence
of Eucalyptus leptophylla and Eucalyptus sargentii at Beer-
mullah, north west of Gingin; The western subspecies of the
Cape Barren Goose, Cereopsis novaehollandiae; Sea Lions breed¬
ing on North Fisherman Island, Western Australia 198

Correction . 204

No. 8, August 22, 1980

A Gascoyne bird list. By Max Howard . 205

Seasonal variations in the abundance and food preferences of honey-
eaters (Meliphagidac) at Wongamine, Western Australia. By B.

G. Collins . . 207

Notes on the biology, distribution and conservation of Dryandra

arborea (Proteaccae). By G. J. Keighcry . 212

The effects of wildfire on Arthropod populations in Jarrah-Banksia

woodland. By R. J. Whelan, W. Langedyk and A. S. Pashby 214

A bird census of Garden Island, W.A. By S. J. J. F. Davies . 220

The flora and fauna of Coffin Island. By G. T. Smith and N. Kolichis 225

Notes on the biology and distribution of two species of Diadoxus
(Coleoptera: Buprestidae) in Western Australia. By M. Peterson
and T. J. Hawkeswood .... . 228

An early Pleistocene macropod from Jandakot, Western Australia.

By Jane Balme . 233

The Potoroo Truffle, Potoromyces loculcitus. By R. N. Hilton 235

From Field and Study: A spider feeding on a jewel beetle; Musk
Lorikeets at Troy Park, Swan River; Record of the Arachnid
order Schizomida in Western Australia; The Red-necked Phal-
arope—new migrant for the south-west of Western Australia;

A note on the diet of the Cape Barren Goose; Jewel beetles as
pollinators of Melaleuca pauperijlora F. Muel. between Eucla
(W.A.) and Koonalda (S.A.); An observation of predatory behav¬
iour by a pygopodid lizard on a scorpion; Additions to the
Herpetofauna of the Sharp Bay region. Western Australia; A

note on artificial nesting sites . 236

Obituary: A. G. Mathews (1907-1978) 242

Index . 247

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN NATURALISTS’ CLUB INC.

Naturalists’ Hall, 63-65 Merriwa Street, Nedlands 6009
Postal Address: P.O. Box 156, Nedlands, 6009

OFFICE BEARERS

Patron:

Sir Thomas Wardle

President:

1977-78: Mr. K. F. Kenncally
1979-80: Miss B. J. M. Hussey

Vice-Presidents:

1977- 78: Miss B. J. M. Hussey
and Mr. John Dell

1978- 79: Mr. John Dell and Mr.
Otto Mueller

1979- 80: Mr. Otto Mueller and
Mr. L. A. Smith

1980: Mr. Otto Mueller and Dr.
T. F. Houston

Hon. Secretary:

1977- 78: Mr. Otto Mueller

1978- 79: Mrs. Pam Dell
1980: Mr. Graeme Rundle

Hon. Treasurer:

1977-79: Mr. J. R. Gardner
1980: Mr. M. Southwell-Keely

Hon. Librarian:

1977- 78: Mrs. E. Browne

1978- 80: Miss Pam Murray

Hon. Editor:

1977- 80: Dr. D. L. Scrventy

Council:

1978- 79: Miss B. J. M. Hussey,
Dr. D. Johnson. Messrs. E. Dell,
R. W. Johnstone, D. McMillan,
M. T. Millard, T. Passmore and

L. A. Smith.

1979- 80: Dr. T. F. Houston, Mrs.
J. Muir, Messrs. E. Dell, D.
McMillan, R. Hammond.

1980: Mrs. Maureen Gardner,
Mrs. Merelyn Southwell-Keely,
Mrs. Betty Wellington, Miss
Doris Johnston, Messrs. E. Dell,

M. Howard and D. McMillan.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Members’ interests, as recorded by them in a questionnaire, are indi¬
cated by the following symbols: A., Arachnids; B., Birds; Bot., Botany:
C., Conchology; E., Ethnology; F., Fishes; G.. General: Geogr., Geography;
Geol., Geology; I., Insects; M., Mammals; Mb., Marine Biology; Ph.,
Photography; R., Reptiles and Amphibia; Sp., Speleology. Names of other
subjects arc printed in full.

HONORARY LIFE MEMBERS

BRIGGS, Mrs. R. P., 46 Stirling H’way., Cottesloe, 6011. (B., Bot., Mb.)
BROWNE, Mrs. Ellen. Flat 108, Forrest Hill Flats, 583 William St., Mt.
Lawley, 6050 (Bot.)

BULLER, K. G., 31 Broome St., Nedlands, 6009.

BUTLER, W. H., C.B.E., c/- Wanneroo Wildflower Nursery, 11 Mile
Peg, Wanneroo Rd., Wanneroo, 6061. (E., G., Mb., R.)

DOUGLAS, A. M., 120 Third Ave., Mt. Lawley, 6050.

ERICKSON, Dr. Rica, 1 Boronia Ave., Nedlands, 6009 (B., Bot.)
GENTILLI, Dr. J., 65 Bruce St., Nedlands, 6009 (Climatology, Biogeo¬
graphy, Mycology).

JENKINS, C. F. H., M.B.E., 22 Freshwater Close, Claremont, 6010
(B., G., I.)

MAIN, Prof. A. R., c/- Zoology Dept., University of W.A., Nedlands, 6009.
MILLS, Mrs. M. B., P.O. Box 187, Mcrrcdin, 6451 (Bot., I., G.)
NICHOLLS, Miss C. A., A. M., 15 Circe Circle, Dalkeith, 6009 (G.)
ROWE, F. W., Kendcnup, 6323 (Bot., G., Geol., I.)

SEDGWICK, E. H., 20 Herbert Rd., Harvey, 6220 (B., C.)

SERVENTY, Dr. D. L., 27 Everett St., Nedlands, 6009 (B., F., G., M.)
SERVENTY, Miss L.. 34 Onslow Rd.. Subiaco, 6008 (B.. Bot., C.)

SERVENTY, V. N., A.M., 8 Reiby Rd., Hunter’s Hill, N.S.W., 2110 (B.. G.)
SEYMOUR, Miss O., Gwenyfred Nursing Home, 62 Gwenyfred Rd.,
South Perth, 6151 (B.)

SMITH, G. G., c/- Botany Dept., University of W.A., Nedlands, 6009
(Bot., Mb.)

SPORN, C. C., 21 Service St., Mandurah, 6210 (B., Bot., R.)

TAYLOR, A., 43 Powell St., Joondanna, 6060 (Bot., Trees)

MEMBERS (SENIOR)

ABBOTT, Dr. Ian, Inst, of Forest Research & Protection, Hayman Rd.,
Como, 6152 (B., Bot.)

ALLISON, R., 5 Riverside Drive, Mosman Park, 6012 (M., B.)
ANDERSON, A., Wellstead, via Albany, 6330 (B., F., M., Ph.)
ANDERSON, Mrs. Dorothy, 37 Alderbury St., Floreat Park, 6014 (Bot.,
Mb., I.)

ANDERSON, K., 24 The Promenade, Willetton, 6155 (M., Mb., Ph.)
ANDERSON. Mrs. Joy, 24 The Promenade, Willetton, 6155 (Bot., M., Mb.)
ARENA, J., 5 Fourth Avc., Maylands, 6051.

ARMSTRONG, Dr. D. P. H., Geography Dept., University of W.A.,
Nedlands, 6009.

ARMSTRONG, Miss Ian, 59 Holland St., Fremantle, 6160.
ARMSTRONG, Miss Maureen, 23 Astlcy St., Gosnells, 6110 (B., Bot.)
ARNOLD, H. W. R., Beulah Downs, Kojanecrup, via Albany, 6330.

ARNOLD, Mrs. Pat, Beulah Downs, Kojancerup, via Albany, 6330.

ASHTON, Mrs. P. E., Victor Rd., Darlington, 6070.

ATHERTON, Miss G. E., M.B.E., 4 Anne Ave., Kalamunda, 6076 (G.)

AUSTIN, Prof. M. N., 15 Congdon St., Claremont, 6010 (B., Bot., Geol.)

AUSTIN, Mrs. R. B., 15 Congdon St., Claremont, 6010.

AUSTIN, Miss R. J., 15 Congdon St., Claremont, 6010.

AUSTIN, M. B., 15 Congdon St., Claremont, 6010.

AUSTIN, C. M., 15 Congdon St., Claremont, 6010 (B., Bot., Ph., Zoology)

BAILEY, Max, Box 803, G.P.O., Perth, 6001 (B.)

BAKER, Dr. F. H. U., 1/29 Ardross St., Applccross, 6153 (I.)

BAKER, Mrs. F. H. U., 1/29 Ardross St., Applccross, 6153.

BAKER, G. F. U., 36 Riverside Dve., Furnissdale, 6210.

BANNISTER, J. L., c/- W.A. Museum, Francis St., Perth, 6000.
BARKER, Dr. Shelley, Dept, of Zoology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide,
S.A. 5001 (M., I.)

BARROW, G., 204 Hamersley Rd., Subiaco, 6008.

BENNETT, J., Senior High School, Ravensthorpe, 6346.

BENNETT, Mrs. Eleanor, Senior High School, Ravensthorpe, 6346.
BENTLEY, Ms. Margot, 2/85 Fairway, Crawley, 6009.

BILL, A. J., 18 Ivanhoe Cres., Avalon, 6210.

BILL, Mrs. B. A., 18 Ivanhoe Cres., Avalon, 6210.

BLUMER, Dr. W. C. F., 41 Thomas St.. Nedlands, 6009.

BLUMER, Mrs. W. C. F., 41 Thomas St., Nedlands, 6009.

BOLGER, Mrs. A., 18 Parkway, Nedlands, 6009.

BOUGHER, Dr. G., 71 Circe Circle. Dalkeith, 6009 (Bot.)

BOUGHER, Mrs. M., 71 Circe Circle, Dalkeith, 6009 (B., F., Mb.)
BOUGHER, A., 71 Circe Circle. Dalkeith, 6009.

BOUGHER, Miss L., 71 Circe Circle, Dalkeith, 6009.

BOUGHER, R., 71 Circe Circle, Dalkeith, 6009.

BOWER, Dr. G., 3 Cygnet Cres., Dalkeith, 6009 (G.)

BOYD, J. S., Lot 25, Peaceful Bay, via Denmark, 6333.

BRABAZON, Ms. Sue, 12B Salamander Place, Dianella, 6062.
BRISTOW, Mrs. Diane, 3 Kaolunga Way, Lcsmurdie, 6076.

BRISTOWE, Miss V. M., 75 Rookwood St., Mt. Lawley, 6050.
BROADHURST, Miss L. M., District Hospital, Beverley, 6304 (B.)
BROCKMAN, Miss N., 2 The Boulevarde, Floreat Park, 6014.
BROCKSOPP, D. J., Box 89, Margaret River, 6285 (B., F.)

BROOKER, M. G., CSIRO Divn. of Wildlife Research, P.O. Box 84,
Lyncham, A.C.T. 2602 (G.)

vii

BROOKS, P., P.O. Box 750, Carnarvon, 6701 (G.)

BROWN, C., M.A., 26 Riverview St., South Perth, 6151 (E., Bot., G.,
Geogr., Geol.)

BROWN, R 85 Holman St., Alfred Cove, 6154.

BROWN, Mrs. S., 85 Holman St., Alfred Cove, 6154.

BRYANT, Mrs. J., 61 Clifton St., Nedlands, 6009.

BURB1DGE, Dr. A. A., P.O. Box 51, Wanneroo, 6065.

BURBIDGE, A. H., Botany Dept., University of W.A., Nedlands, 6009
(B., Bot.)

BURKING, R. C., Divn. of Animal Husbandry, Dept, of Agriculture,
Jarrah Rd.. South Perth, 6151.

BURT, J. S., G.P.O. Box A48, Perth, 6001.

BUSH, Tony, 149 Hakea Court, Albany, 6330 (B.)

BUTCHER, J. L., 109 Branksome Gardens, City Beach, 6015.
BUTCHER, L., 70 Kalamatta Way, Gooseberry Hill, 6076.

BUTCHER, Mrs. J., 70 Kalamatta Way., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.
BYRNE, K., 6 Burwood St., Nedlands, 6009 (G.)

BYRNE, Mrs. A., 6 Burwood St., Nedlands, 6009.

CAFFIN, D., P.O., Box 29, Armadale, 6112.

CAFFIN, Mrs. N., P.O. Box 29, Armadale, 6112.

CALA,BY, J. H., Box 84, Lyneham, Canberra, A.C.T., 2602.

CASEY, Br. T., 100 Fern Rd., Wilson, 6107 (G.)

CHAPMAN, A., P.O.. Ravensthorpe, 6346 (B.)

CHARLTON, A., 23 Hester St., Langford, 6155.

CHARLTON, Mrs. K., 23 Hester St., Langford, 6155.

CHARLTON, Miss L., 23 Hester St., Langford, 6155.

CHEESEMAN, G. M.. P.O. Box 6. Mundaring, 6073 (Bot., G.)
CHEYNE, Miss D., 9 Saladin St., Swanbourne, 6010 (B., Bot., C., G.)
CHEYNE, Miss B. M., 9 Saladin St., Swanbourne, 6010 (B., Bot., C., G.)
CHIT^I LEBOROUGH. Dr. R. G., Victorian Inst, of Marine Sciences, 14
Parliament Place, Melbourne, Vic. 3002.

CHRISTENSEN, Dr. P., 78 Pritchard St., Manjimup, 6258.

CLAYTON, Ms. M. D., 130 Warnbro Beach Rd., Warnbro, 6169.
CLIFTON. Mrs. Yvonne. 15 Ventnor St., Scarborough, 6019.
CLEMENTS, Mrs. E., 7 Warboy St.. Mosman Park, 6012.

CLEMENTS, Dr. D. A., 7 Warboy St., Mosman Park, 6012.
CLELAND, Dame Rachel, 155 Rear Forrest St., Peppermint Grove, 6011.
CONNOR, Mrs. D., 57 Goldsmith Rd., Dalkeith, 6009.

COONEY, Miss H. L., 16 Lowanna Way. City Beach, 6015.
CHRISTOPHER, Mrs. A. M., 35/73 Mill Point Rd., South Perth, 6151.
CLARK, Mrs. J., 59 Mary St., Waterman, 6020.

CLARK, Dr. M., 59 Marv St.. Waterman, 6020 (G.)

CLARKE, Mrs. A., 22 Hillway, Nedlands, 6009.

CLARKE, Mrs. M. J., 12 Aboyne Rd., Gooseberry Hill, 6076 (B., G., M.)
CONACHER, A., 265 Salvado Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.

CONACHER, Mrs. Jeanette, 265 Salvado Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.
COPEMAN. Mrs. E., 21 Beach Rd., Marmion, 6020.

CRANNIGAN, J. B., 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat, 6014.

CRANNIGAN, Miss Jan. 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.
CRANNIGAN, Miss Judith, 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.
CRANNIGAN. Peter, 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.
CRANNIGAN, Mrs. S.. 36 Roscommon Rd.. Floreat Park, 6014.
CREED, Dr. K. E., School of Veterinary Science, Murdoch University,
Murdoch, 6153.

CRESPIN, J. F., 3/2 Hillway, Nedlands, 6009.

CULLEN, Mrs. M. E., 130 Townsend Rd., Subiaco, 6008.
CUNNINGHAM, K. R.. Walpole National Park, Walpole, 6398.
CUREDALE, G. E., P.O. Box 969, Geraldton, 6530.

CUREDALE, Mrs. G. W., P.O. Box 969, Geraldton, 6530.

CURRY, A. G.. 248-250 Mill Point Rd., South Perth, 6151.

CURTIS, R., 11 Stanmore St., Shenton Park. 6008.

CURTIS, Mrs. R., 11 Stanmore St., Shenton Park, 6008.

viii

QACHTLER, Mrs. W., 223 Hartfield Rd., Forrestfield, 6056.
DARBYSHIRE, Miss J., 18 Portland St., Nedlands, 6009.

DAVIDSON, Mrs. M., 107 Forrest St., South Perth, 6151.

DAVIES, Dr. S. J. J. F., “Waters Upton”, Mt. Helena, 6555 (B., Behaviour,
Bot., M.)

DAWBARN, Miss M. C., 9 Bellevue Ave., Dalkeith, 6009 (G.)

DE BURGH, Mrs. S. G., 4/17 Richardson St., South Perth, 6151.

DE LA HUNTY, Mrs. S., 22 Fraser Rd., Applecross, 6153.

DELL, Dr. E., School of Environmental & Life Sciences, Murdoch Uni¬
versity, Murdoch, 6153.

DELL, E., Glcnbrook Orchard, Aldersydc Rd. (South), Bickley, 6076.
DELL, Mrs. E. J., Glenbrook Orchard, Aldersydc Rd. (South), Bickley,
6076.

DELL, J., P.O. Box 173, Kalamunda, 6076 (B., R.)

DELL, Mrs. P., P.O. Box 173, Kalamunda, 6076.

DEN BY, Mrs. B., 4 Wandoo Rd., Duncraig, 6023.

DEN BY, B., 4 Wandoo Rd., Duncraig, 6023.

DENNY, Miss R. J., 9/11 Mount St., Perth, 6000.

DE REBE1RA, Mrs. A., 17 Seaforth Rd., Nollamara, 6061 (B.)

DE REBEIRA, C. P. S., 17 Seaforth Rd., Nollamara, 6061 (B.)

DICKENS, J.. 176 Williams Rd., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.

DOLEY, Mrs. A., “Koobabbie”, Coorovv, 6515.

DOUGLAS, Miss L., c/- P.O. Kununurra, 6743.

DOYLE, G. E., Lot 73, Henley St., West Swan, 6055.

DOYLE, Mrs. I. J.. Lot 73, Henley St., West Swan, 6055.

DRAKES, D., 4 Johnson Rd., Parkcrville, 6553.

DRAKES, Mrs. Doris, 4 Johnson Rd., Parkcrville, 6553.

DUNCAN, Miss A., 24 Gallipoli St., Victoria Park, 6100.

DUNNE, Mrs. M. A., 40 Owston St., Mosman Park, 6012.

DUNNE, J. P., 40 Owston St., Mosman Park, 6012.

EARLE-SMITH, Miss K., c/- Agnew Mining Co., Leinster, 6437 (B., G.,
M., L, R.)

EARLE-SMITH, Mrs. M., 105 Nanson St., Wembley, 6014 (G.)
EASTHER, Ms. J., Lot 15, Woodbridge Drive, Greenmount, 6056.
EDGAR, I., 37 Mitchell St., Ardross, 6153 (B., Ph.)

EDGAR, Mrs. T., 37 Mitchell St., Ardross, 6153.

ELKINGTON, Mrs. K., 15 Kershaw St., Subiaco, 6008.

ELLIOTT, Miss S., 86 Webster St., Nedlands, 6009.

ELWOOD, T., 10 Climping St., Balga, 6061 (B., F., G., I., M., Ph., R.)
EMBERSON, Mrs. J., 1 La Grange St., Innaloo, 6018 (G., Bot.)
ENGLEDEW. P., 8 Kennedy Way, Padbury, 6025.

EVANS, Miss M., 60 The Esplanade, Peppermint Grove, 6011.

EWERS, Mrs. D. M., 25 Hammad St., Palmyra, 6157.

FAIRFAX, Mrs. G., 4 Gray Rd., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.

FAIRFAX, R., 4 Gray Rd., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.

FAVALORO, N. J., P.O. Box 765, Mildura, Victoria, 3500.

FAWCETT, Mrs. L., 18 Strome Rd., Applecross, 6153.

FEWSTER, A., 9 Morphett Crcs., Bateman, 6153 (B.)

FEWSTER, Mrs. B., 9 Morphett Cres., Bateman, 6153 (B.)

FISCHER. Miss P., 8 Stone Cres., Darlington, 6070 (B., G., M., Ph., Sp.)
FISHER, L. G., 21 Chrysostom St., Trigg, 6020 (B., Bot, G.)

FLEAY, Miss J., 3/57 Troy Tee., Daglish, 6008.

FOLLEY, Mrs. B., R.M.B. 8609, Two Peoples Bay, 6330.

FOLLEY, G., R.M.B. 8609, Two Peoples Bay, 6330.

FORD, J. R., 21 Bowtell Rd., Lesmurdie, 6076 (B., G., M., R.)

FORTE, Mrs. M., 12/248 Labouchere Rd., Como, 6152.

FOX, Mrs. E., Biology Dept.. W.A.I.T., Bentley. 6102.

FOX, Dr. J., Biology Dept., W.A.I.T., Bentley, 6102.

FRY, T. C., 25 Saunders St., Swanbourne, 6010.

FULLER, P. J., 1 Ruth St., Como, 6152 (B.)

GAMACK, J. B., Helena St., Guildford, 6055.

GARDNER, Mrs. A. J., 4/18 Kintail Rd., Applecross, 6150.

GARDNER, J. R., 11 Barsden St., Cottesloe, 6011.

GARDNER, Mrs. M. A., 11 Barsden St., Cottesloe, 6011.

GARDINER, Mrs. B., 25 Beatrice Rd., Dalkeith, 6009.

GEORGE, A. S., W.A. Herbarium, Jarrah Rd., South Perth, 6151 (Bot.,
G., Geogr.)

GIBBS, Mrs. D. G., Dardanup, 6236.

GIBBS, H. B., Dardanup, 6236. .

GOODALE, Mrs. A. F., 218 Arcadia Drive, Safety Bay, 6169 (B., M., Ph.)
GOODALE, R. J., 218 Arcadia Drive, Safety Bay, 6169.

GREEN, Dr. A. H., c/- BHP Exploration. G.P.O. Box L923, Perth, 6001.
GREEN, Mrs. G.. 9 Grayson Court, Wilson, 6107.

GREEN, M., 9 Grayson Court, Wilson, 6107.

GREEN, Mrs. O.. 288 Hale Rd., Woodlands, 6018.

GREGG, Miss R., 7 Shelley St., Shelley, 6155.

GRIFFITHS, K.. “Delilya", P.O., Parkerville, 6553 (B„ Bot., I„ R.)
GRIFFITHS, Mrs. P„ “Delilya”, P.O., Parkerville, 6553.

HALE, Miss B., 35 Bruce St., Nedlands, 6009.

HALL, Miss E., 41 Winterfield Rd., Hamilton Hill, East, 6163.

HALLAM, Prof. H. E., 13 Walter St., Claremont, 6010.

HALLAM, Mrs. S. J., 13 Walter St., Claremont, 6010 (E.)

HALSE, S. A., 156 Lockhart St., Como, 6152.

HAMMOND, R. K., 22 Victoria St., Guildford, 6055.

HANCOCK, I. R., Condingup Primary School, Condingup, via Esperance.
HANLON, T. M., 38 Genesta Court, Dalkeith, 6009 (G., I., Ph., R.)
HARNETT, Mrs. J., 164 Shenton St., Geraldton. 6530.

HARTLEY, R. G., 20 Hogarth Way, Bateman, 6153.

HASKINS, Dr. C. O., Suite 600, 2100 M St., N.W. Washington, D.C.,
20037, U.S.A.

HASSELL, C. W., 39 Birdwood Pde., Dalkeith, 6009.

HASSELL, Mrs. J., 39 Birdwood Pde., Dalkeith, 6009.

HASSETT, R. J., 316 Salvado Rd., Floreat Park, 6014 (G.)

HASSETT, Mrs. R. J., 316 Salvado Rd., Floreat Park, 6014 (G.)
HAWKESWOOD, T. J., Dept, of Botany, University of W.A., Crawley,
6009 (Bot., G., I.)

HAWTHORN, B., 5 Gidgce Place, Duncraig, 6023 (B., Bot., F., Geol.,
Geogr., Ph.)

HEMSLEY, L., P.O. Box 242, Cloverdalc, 6105.

HEMSLEY, Mrs. V., 64 Canning Avc., Mt. Pleasant, 6153 (G.)

HNATIUK, Dr. R. J., 13 Eastficld Court, Ferndale, 6155.

HNATIUK, Dr. S. H., 13 Eastficld Court, Ferndale, 6155.

HODGKIN, Dr. E. P., 6 Princess St., Mosman Park, 6012 (I., Mb.)

HOGARTH. Mrs. P. S., P.O. Box 1, Darlington. 6070 (B., Bot., Geol.)
HOGARTH, T. W., P.O. Box 1, Darlington, 6070 (B., Geogr.)

HOGBIN. R. H., 16 Kingsall Rd., Attadalc, 6156.

HOGBIN, Mrs. W., 16 Kingsall Rd., Attadalc, 6156.

HOPPER, S. D., W.A. Wildlife Research Centre. P.O. Box 51, Wanneroo,
6065.

HOUSTON, Dr. T. F., 3 Mount Prospect Cres., Maylands, 6051.
HOWARD, Ms. C., Unit 7, 13-15 Rupert St., Maylands, 6051.

HOWARD, M. J., 9 Leschenaultia St., Roleystone, 6111.

HUSSEY. Miss B. M. J., 45 Miller St., East Victoria Park, 6101 (Bot.)
HUTCHINSON, J. N„ Brockman St., Balingup, 6253.

HUTCHINSON. Mrs., 113 Grove Rd., Lesmurdie, 6076 (G., Geogr.)
HUTCHISON, D., 7 Fern St., Swanbournc, 6010.

HUTCHISON, Mrs. J. R., 7 Fern St., Swanbournc, 6010.

INGLETON, N., 109 Dalkeith Rd., Nedlands. 6009 (Bot., Geol.)
INGLETON, Mrs. P., 109 Dalkeith Rd., Nedlands, 6009.

IRELAND, R. R., P.O. Glen Forrest, 6071 (G.)

IRELAND, Mrs. W„ P.O., Glen Forrest, 6071 (G.)

IRELAND, Miss Peta, P.O. Glen Forrest, 6071 (G., Mb.)

IRELAND, Dr. Mark, 73 Hardy St., Nedlands, 6009 (E., G., Geogr., Geol.)
IRELAND, Mrs. Mark, 73 Hardy St., Nedlands, 6009 (E., G., Geogr.,
Geol.)

IRWIN, E. W. D., 24 Darley Heights, Darlcy St., South Perth, 6151.
IRWIN, Mrs. E. W. D., 24 Darley Heights, Darley St., South Perth, 6151.

JAMES, D. F„ 283 Commercial Rd., Forrestdale, 6112 (B., G.)
JENKINS, Mrs. J., 88 Rosedalc St., Floreat Park, 6014 (G.)

JOHNSON, Miss D. I., 6 Merriwa St., Hollywood, 6009.

JOHNSON, Miss K. M., 2 Nangkitta Rd., Lcsmurdie, 6076 (B., Bot.)
JOHNSON, Mrs. K. S., 41 Goldsmith Rd., Dalkeith, 6009.
JOHNSTONE, R. E., W.A. Museum, Francis St., Perth, 6000.

JONES, Dr. A. L., 33 Caporn St., Nedlands, 6009.

JONES, M. E., 6/262 Holbeck St., Doubleview, 6018.

KABAY, E. D., 48 Banksia Tee., South Yundurup, 6208.

KEAST, Prof. J. A., Dept, of Biology, Queens University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6.

KEIGHERY, Mrs. B. J., c/- Kings Park Botanic Garden, West Perth, 6005.
KEIGHERY, G. J., c/- Kings Park Botanic Garden, West Perth, 6005.
KENDRICK, G. W., 35 Elmhurst Way, Greenwood, 6024 (C., Quaternary
Geol.)

KENNEALLY, K. F., W.A. Herbarium, George St., South Perth, 6151.
KENNETT, Dr. B., 77 Tyrell St., Nedlands, 6009 (G.)

KENNETT, Dr. D. W., 77 Tyrell St., Nedlands, 6009 (B.)

KERR, Miss M., 22 Periwinkle Way, Parkwood, 6155.

KINGSTON, Ms D., 10 Lania Court, Rossmoyne, 6155.

KINNEAR, Dr. A., 9 Valley Rd., Wembley Downs, 6019 (I., M.)
K1NNEAR, Dr. J., 9 Valley Rd., Wembley Downs, 6019 (I., M.)

KITSON, Ms E., Lot 67 Harvest Rd., Morley, 6062.

KLUMPP, Miss J. M., 30A Lalor St., Scarborough, 6019.

KNIGHT, Dr. J. O., 32 The '.Boulevardc, Floreat Park, 6014.

KNIGH'P, Mrs. J. L., 32 The Boulevarde, Floreat Park, 6014.

KNOTT, E. D., 6 Swanview Rd., Grcenmount, 6056.

KOCH, Dr. L. E., 51 Kingsway, Nedlands, 6009.

KOLICHIS, N., 166 Howe St.. Osborne Park, 6017 (B., Ph., R.)
KRIEWALDT, M., P.O. Box 6010, Hay St., East Perth, 6000.

LACOUR-GAYET, Mme. R., 19 Avenue Franklin Roosevelt, Paris,

France (B.)

LANE, J. A., c/- Wildlife Research Centre, P.O. Box 51, Wanneroo,
6165 (B., G.)

LANE, Mrs. J., Lot 128 Johnston Rd., Parkerville, 6553.

LANE, P., Lot 128, Johnston Rd., Parkerville, 6553.

LANE, Mrs. H., 3 Cameron St., Karrinyup, 6018.

LANE, T.. 3 Cameron St., Karrinyup, 6018.

LANTZKE, Dr. I. R., 4 Ailsa St., Wembley Downs, 6019 (Bot., F., G.,
Mb., Ph.)

LANTZKE, Mrs. P. M., 4 Ailsa St., Wembley Downs, 6019 (Bot., F. G.,
Mb., Ph.)

LAY, Dr. H., 56 Purdom Rd., Wembley Downs, 6019 (B., Bot.)

LEE, Mrs. G., 5 Bennett Court, Leeming, 6153.

LEE, J., 5 Bennett Court, Leeming, 6153.

LE FANU, S., 41 Riverview Tee., Indooroopilly, Q’land 4068 (G.)

LE SOUEF, Miss N. E., 47/73 Mill Point Rd., South Perth, 6151.
LINDSEY, Miss Pat, 20 Kings Rd., Subiaco, 6008.

LLOYD, M., Stirling Range National Park, via Borden, 6338.

LOARING, Mrs. M., 151 Stanhope Rd., Kalamunda, 6076 (B.)
LODGE, G. A., R.M.B. 107D, Boyup Brook, 6244 (B., G.)

LONEY, Mrs. S.. 22 Carrington St., Nedlands. 6009 (Bot., G., Geogr.)
LUXFORD, B., 15 Brown St., Claremont, 6010.

LUYER, J. R., 249 Marmion St., Cottesloe, 6011.

LUYER, Mrs. R. H., 249 Marmion St., Claremont, 6011.

McCRUM, E., Lot 207 Kintore Rd., Parkcrville, 6553 (G.)

McCRUM, Mrs. M„ Lot 207 Kintore Rd., Parkerville, 6553 (G.)
McCRUM, Miss T., Lot 207 Kintore Rd., Parkerville, 6553.
McDOUGALL, R. D., 34 Emily St., St. James, 6102 (G.)

McGAURAN, Miss J., “Bunya”, Yuna, 6532 (B., Bot., I., R.)

McHUGH, L. J.. 30 Oliver Rd., Roseville, N.S.W. 2069 (B.)

MacIVER, Miss J., 1/33 Victoria Ave., Claremont, 6010.

McKEAN, J. L.. P.M.B. 44, Winnellie. N.T. 5789 (B., G., M.)
MacKENZIE, P., 18 Riley Rd., Claremont, 6010 (B., Bot., Mb.)
McKEON, J. J., 33 York St., Tuart Hill, 6060 (B.)

McLACHLAN, K. L., 5/2 Muriel Ave., Woodlands, 6018.
McLAUGHLIN, R., Lot 55, Victoria Rd., West Swan, 6055.
McMILLAN, D. j., 138 Broome St., Cottesloe, 6011.

McMILLAN, R. P., A.M. 82 Railway St., Cottesloe, 6011 (B., Bot., I., Mb.)
McNAMARA, Mrs. B. A., 9 Central Ave., Rossmoyne, 6155.
McNAMARA, B. a., 9 Central Ave., Rossmoyne, 6155.

MAHONY, K., Carracang Stn., P.M.B. 10, Geraldton, 6530 (G.)

MAIN, Dr. B. Y., Zoology Dept.. University of W.A., Nedlands, 6009.
MANNING, Mrs. M., 47/73 Mill Point Rd., South Perth, 6151 (G.)
MARKHAM, J. R., 21 Norman St., Wembley Downs, 6019.

MARKS, Mrs. V., 6 Gooch St., Hamilton Hill, 6163.

MARR, Mrs. N., c/- District High School, Kununurra, 6743 (B., Bot.)
MARSH, Mrs. L., c/- W.A. Museum, Francis St., Perth, 6000.
MARSHALL, D., P.O. Box 593, Bunbury, 6230.

MARSHALL, Mrs. V., P.O. Box 593, Bunbury, 6230.

MARSHALL, Miss E., 3/247 Coode St.. Como, 6152.

MARSHALL, Mrs. L. R., 20 Hobbs Ave., Como, 6152 (B., M., Ph., R.)
MARSHALL, R. E., 20 Hobbs Ave.. Como, 6152 (B., Gcogr., M.)
MARTIN, Dr. H., 4 Mordolf Rd., Lesmurdie, 6076.

MASTERS, B., 17 Mimosa Ave., Graylands, 6010.

MASTERS, Mrs. C. T„ 17 Mimosa Ave., Graylands, 6010.

MAUGHAN, Mrs. D., 1B South-West H’way, Donnybrook, 6239 (B., Bot,
I., M.)

MAWSON, J. R., 42 Aurelian St., Palmyra, 6157 (A., R.)

MAYR, Prof. E., c/- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Uni¬
versity, Cambridge Mass. 02138, U.S.A.

MERCER, Mrs. E. W., 26 Muir St., Innaloo, 6018 (Frogs).

MERCER, R. W., 26 Muir St., Innaloo, 6018 (R., Ph.)

MILLARD, M., 49 Loton St.. Woodlands, 6018.

MILLARD, Mrs. Y., 49 Loton St., Woodlands, 6018.

MILHINCH, A. L., “Seabrook”. via Northam, 6401 (B., Geol.)
MILHINCH, Mrs. R., “Seabrook”, via Northam, 6401 (Bot., G.)
MILLS, Mrs. J., Lot 7. Vera St., Go^nells, 6100.

MILNE. Miss E., 14 Margaret St.. Cottesloe, 6011.

MITCHELL, Ms A. F.. 6 Marlow St., Wembley, 6014.

MITCHELL, T., “Wyndabyne", via Piawaning, 6572.

MONTEBELLO, E., 50 Davies Cres., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.
MONTEBELLO. Mrs. E., 50 Davies Cres., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.
MORAN, Miss Jan, 36 Roscommon Rd., Florcat Park. 6014.

MORAN, Miss Judith, 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat Park 6014.
MORAN, P.. 36 Roscommon Rd., Floreat Park, 6014.

MORCOMBE, M., P.O. Box 54, Armadale, 6112 (B., Bot., Geol., I., M.,
Ph., R., Sp.)

MORECOMBF,, Mrs. M., P.O. Box 54, Armadale, 6112 (B.. Bot., Geol.,
L, M., Ph., R., Sp.)

MORRIS, Miss F. E., 2 Staines St., Victoria Park, 6100. (B., Bot., G.,
Frogs, Fungi)

MORRIS, Miss H., 139 Stubbs Tee., Daglish, 6008 (B.)

MOULDS, M. S., 14 Chisholm St., Greenwich, N.S.W. 2065 (I.)

MOYES, Mrs. J., Christ Church Grammar School, Queenslea Drive, Clare¬
mont (B.)

MUELLER, Mrs. A., 7 Hamer Ave., Wembley Downs, 6019.

xii

MUELLER, Otto, 7 Hamer Ave., Wembley Downs, 6019 (B.)
MUIR, B. G., 44 Coulston Rd., Boya, 6056.

MUIR, Mrs. J., 44 Coulston Rd., Boya, 6056.

MURRAY, N., 29 Hovea Tee., Kensington, 6151.

MURRAY, Miss P., P.O. Box 7, Mt. Lawley, 6050 (G.)

NEAL, Mrs. Alwyn, Yanchep National Park, 6035 (B., Bot., G., I., M.,
Ph., R.)

NEAL, R., Yanchep National Park, 6035 (B., Bot., G., I., M., Ph., R.)
NEWBEY, K. R., Ongerup, 6336 (Plant Gcogr., Domestication of Native
Plants)

NEWELL, Mrs. L., 4/19 Sorrento St., North Beach, 6020 (C., Geol.,
G., Mb.)

NICHOLAS, D., 33 Barbigal Place, Lesmurdie, 6076 (G.)

NICHOLAS, Mrs. G., 33 Barbigal Place, Lesmurdie, 6076.

NOTLEY, A. T., 15 Lugger Place, Yanchep, 6065 (G.)

O’DONNELL, C. F., 5 Vista St., South Perth, 6151.
O’FARRELL, A., 12/18 Padbury Tee., Midland, 6056.
OLDHAM, J., 11 Saladin St., Swanbourne, 6010.
OLDHAM, Mrs. Ray, 11 Saladin St., Swanbourne, 6010.
OLIVER, K., 44A Armstrong Rd., Wilson, 6107.

PAINE, Dr. G. D., Private Bag 0035, Gaborone, Botswana.

PARKER, 1. R. H., R.M.B. 137, Boyup Brook, 6244.

PARKER, Mrs. I. R. H., R.M.B. 137, Boyup Brook, 6244.

PARKES, B. J., 24 Bellbird Rd., Mount Eliza, Victoria 3930 (Freshwater
Fishes)

PARRY, Mrs. E. S., 29 Compass Circle, Yanchep Lagoon, 6035.
PARRY, Mrs. F. I., 43 Shearman St., Attadale, 6156.

PARRY, J., 7 Fortview Rd., Mt. Claremont, 6010.

PASSMORE, Mrs. N., John Forrest National Park, P.O. Glen Forrest,
6071 (G).

PASSMORE, T., John Forrest National Park, P.O., Glen Forrest, 6071 (G.)
PAYTON, G. R., 2 Spencer St., Bunbury, 6230.

PEGGS, Ms K., 61B Albina Rd., Maida Vale, 6057.

PERRET, Dr. C. J., 132 Rosalie St., Shenton Park, 6008 (G.)

PERRET, Dr. D., 132 Rosalie St., Shenton Park, 6008 (G.)

PERRY, D. H., 26 Egham Rd., Victoria Park, 6100 (G.)

PERRY, Mrs. G., Botany Branch, Dept, of Agriculture, Jarrah Rd., South
Perth, 6151 (B., Bot.)

PERRY, Mrs. K. D., 142 Drummond Cres., Dampier, 6713.

PERRY, Mrs. R., 21 Clarke Rd., Morlcy, 6062.

PETERSON, Magnus, 69 Alvah St., St. James, 6102 (Bot., Geol., I., Ph.,
R., Sp.)

PHILIPP, G. A., 6 Dodonia Gardens, City Beach, 6015.

PHILLIPS, Dr. B. F., CSIRO Marine Biological Laboratory, Cronulla,
N.S.W. 2230.

PHILLIPS, Dr. P. A., 21/73 Keightley Rd., Shenton Park, 6008 (B., G.)
PIANKA, Dr. E. R., University of Texas, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 78712.
PIPER, Dr. L. R., Hazeldenc, Armidale, N.S.W. 2350.

PLAYFORD, Mrs. C., 102 Thomas St., Nedlands, 6009 (Bot., G.)
PLAYFORD, Dr. P., 102 Thomas St., Nedlands, 6009.

POLE, Miss E., 17 Hesperia Ave., City Beach, 6015.

POOLE, W. E., Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, P.O. Box 84, Lyne-
ham, A.C.T. 2602 (G.)

POPPLEWELL, A. K., Box 86, Moora, 6510.

POW, Miss S., 36 Hopetoun Tee., Shenton Park, 6008 (B., Bot.)
POWELL, R., 1 La Grange St., Innaloo, 6018 (Bot., F., G.)

POYNTON, M„ 18 Brighton St., Cottesloe, 6011 (B., G., Ph.)

PRALL, D., 7 Cliff Place, Gosnells, 6100 (B.)

PRALL, Mrs. D., 7 Cliff Place, Gosnells, 6100 (B., G., Geogr.)
PRENDERGAST, W. F., 30 Freshwater Pde., Claremont, 6010.

xiii

QUARTERMAINE, Ms J., 8 Nookawarra Place, Kelmscott, 6111.

RANFORD, Mrs. F. H., 31 Goldsworthy Rd., Claremont, 6010.
RANFORD, F. H., 31 Goldsworthy Rd., Claremont, 6010.

REID, Mrs. D. L., c/- Western Mining Corp. Ltd., P.O. Box 17, Leonora,
6438 (B., Geol.)

REID, D. R., c/- Western Mining Corp. Ltd., P.O. Box 17, Leonora, 6438
(B., Geol.)

RICHARDSON, Dr. K., c/- Veterinary School, Murdoch University,
Murdoch, 6153 (G.)

RIDE, Dr. W. D. L., 29 Gordon St., Hughes, A.C.T. 2605.

ROBINSON. Mrs. A. D., 46 Clifton St., Nedlands, 6009.

ROBINSON, Ms F. E., P.O. Box 90, Lake Grace, 6353 (B.)

ROBINSON. F. N., 10/35 Margaret St., Waterman, 6020.

ROBINSON, Mrs. J. M., P.O. Box 61, York, 6302.

ROE, Mrs. R., Lot 152 Bandy Ave., Lancelin, 6508 (B., Bot., Geol., M.)
ROE, Miss S., 13/79 South Tee., Como, 6152 (G.)

ROGERS, Ms M., 5 Fourth Ave., Maylands, 6051.

ROSAIR, Mrs. Barbara, 120 Gooseberry Hill Rd., Gooseberry Hill, 6076
G.) ^ .

ROSS, P. H., 24 Marine Pde., Mosman Park, 6012 (Fungi)
ROWBOTHAM, Mrs. V., Methodist Ladies College, Claremont, 6010.
ROWLEY, L, Divn. of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, Helena Valley, 6056.
ROYCE, R. D., P.O. Box 144, Midland, 6056.

RUNDLE, G., 5 Clontarf St., Sorrento, 6020 (G.)

RUSSELL, W. K., Dept, of Agriculture, Harvey, 6220.

RUSYN, Miss S., 33 Walter Rd., Inglewood, 6052 (B., Bot., G., Geol., Ph.)
RUTHERFORD, Miss M., 59 Holland St., Fremantle, 6160.

SAAR, A., 92 Salisbury St., Bedford, 6052 (B., Bot.)

SAAR, Mrs. E. F., 2 Emander Drive, Dianella, 6062 (IB., Bot., G.)
SAWYER, M., 5 Mandoon Close, Darlington, 6070 (G.)

SAWYER. Mrs. P., 5 Mandoon Close, Darlington, 6070 (G.)
SEMENIUK, Mrs., 21 Glcnmore Rd., Warwick, 6024.

SEMEN I UK, Dr. V., 21 Glcnmore Rd., Warwick, 6024.

SENIOR. Mrs. Sally, 8 Freshwater Place, Claremont, 6010.

SERVENTY, J. S.. 3 Howie St., Woodlands, 6018 (G., Sp.)

SHANNON, Dr. T. G., 31 Cimbrook Way, Duncraig, 6023 (B., M., Ph.)
SHEPHERD, Mrs. M. L., 4 Barcoo Ave., Claremont, 6010.

SHIPLEY, Miss T., Publications Branch, Education Dept., West Perth,
6005 (B., E.)

SHUGG, H. B., 108 Adelaide Tee., Perth, 6000 (G.)

SIDOTI, Mrs. C. E., 5 Campsie St., Nedlands, 6009.

SIEBER, A. D., 184 Birkett St., Dianella, 6062 (B., Bot.)

SMITH, A., 59 Cleopatra St., Palmyra, 6157.

SMITH, Mrs. A., 59 Cleopatra St., Palmyra, 6157.

SMITH, Mrs. Eleanor, 66 Bay View Tee., Mosman Park, 6012 (Geol., Mb.)
SMITH, J. A., 7/86 Caledonian St., Maylands, 6051.

SMITH, L. A., W.A. Museum. Francis St., Perth, 6000.

SMITH, Mrs. J., 20 Buntinc Rd., Wembley Downs, 6019.

SMITH, Dr. M., 20 Buntine Rd., Wembley Downs, 6019.

SMITH, Miss P. S., 6 Oceamc Drive, Floreat Park, 6014.

SMITH, Dr. V. W., 21 Purdy Ave., Ardross, 6153.

SONNEMANN, N. M., Dept, of Agriculture, Kununurra, 6743.
SOTZIK, K., 15 Adamson Rd., Brentwood, 6153 (G.)

SOUNESS, Miss K., Egypt Estate, Mount Barker, 6324.

SOUTHWELL-KEELY, M., Lot 1, Hillcrest Rd., Mundaring, 6073.
SOUTHWELL-KEELY, Mrs. M., Lot I, Hillcrest Rd., Mundaring, 6073.
SPALDING, Dr. V. T., 39 Strickland Rd., Ardross, 6153.

SPALDING, Mrs. V. T., 39 Strickland Rd.. Ardross, 6153.

SPENCE, T., 151 Mill Point Rd., South Perth, 6151.

STAINSBY, P., 113 Grove Rd., Lcsmurdie, 6076 (G.)

STAINSBY, Mrs. P., 113 Grove Rd., Lesmurdie, 6076.

xiv

STANNAGE, Miss M., 86 Salisbury St., Subiaco, 6008.

STEINBECK, K., 3 Standcn Court, Kalamunda, 6076 (Bot., I., Mb., Ph.)
STEINBECK, Mrs. Lesley, 2 Hotchin St., Bunbury, 6230 (G.)
STEWART, Mrs. K., 7 Stanley St., Nedlands, 6009 (Bot.)

STORR, Dr. G. M., W.A. Museum, Francis St., Perth, 6000 (B., Bot.,
G., R.)

STOUT, A. L., 4/1 Lyall wSt., South Perth, 6151.

STRINGER, E. H., 2/6 Scenic Cres., South Perth, 6151 (B., Bot., G.,
Geogr., Geol., I., M„ Ph.)

STRINGER, Mrs. J., 2/6 Scenic Cresc., South Perth, 6151 (B., Bot., G.,
Geogr., Geol., 1., M., Ph.)

STUART, Mrs. D., 94 Cobb St., Scarborough, 6019.

SWINDELL, Mrs. Y. V., 98 Forrest St., Cottesloe, 6011.

TALBOT, Mrs. Isabel, c/- J. N. Talbot, c/- Parliamentary Counsel,
Crown Law Dept., G.P.O. Box F317, Perth, 6001.

TALBOT, J., c/- Parliamentary Counsel, Crown Law Dept., G.P.O. Box
F317, Perth, 6001.

TALBOT, Mrs. V., c/- Parliamentary Counsel, Crown Law Dept., G.P.O.
Box F317, Perth, 6001.

TANNER, A. G., 44 Houston Avc., Dianella, 6062 (B., Geol.)

TAYLOR, Mrs. A., 43 Powell St., Joondanna, 6060.

TAYLOR, Mrs. A. M., 42 Sampson Rd., Kalamunda, 6076.

TEALE, G., “Berrimillah”, Traylen Rd., Stoneville, 6554 (G.)

TEALE, Mrs. J., “Berrimillah”, Traylen Rd., Stoneville, 6554 (Ph.)
TEMPLE, Mss B., 211 Heytesbury Rd.. Subiaco, 6008 (B., Bot.)
TETLOW, Miss E., Ill Verna St., Gosnells, 6110.

THIES, Dr. H. H., 16 Edward St., Nedlands, 6009.

THIES, Mrs. K., 16 Edward St„ Nedlands, 6009.

THOMAS, M., 268 Nicholson Rd., Subiaco, 6008.

TODD, K., 93 Menwood Ave., Killarney Heights, N.S.W. 2087 (Bot., G.)
TONKINSON, J. P. 58 Dalgcty St., E. Fremantle, 6158.

TORRENS, J., 2 John St.. Henley Brook, 6055 (B., M., Ph.)

TROTT, Mrs. M., 13/12 Eric St., Como, 6152.

VAUGHAN, Mrs. M., 35 Wittenoom Rd., High Wycombe, 6057.

WARDLE, Sir Thomas, 3 Kent St., Bicton, 6157.

WARHAM, Dr. J., Zoology Dept., University of Canterbury, Christchurch,
New Zealand (B.)

WATERHOUSE, Mrs. B. V., Yanchep National Park, Yanchep, 6065.
WATERHOUSE, R. S., Yanchep National Park, Yanchep, 6065.
WATSON, Dr. A. T., 14 Duncraig Rd., Applecross, 6153.

WEBSTER, H. O., Lot 108 Ulster Rd., Albany, 6330 (B., Sp.)
WELLINGTON, Mrs. B. D., 3 Rich St., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.
WELLMAN, Mrs. J., Bindaree Tee., Kingsley, 6024.

WELLS, A. G., Box 57, Scarborough, 6019 (B., Bot., Geol.)

WELLS. Mrs. B. A., Box 57, Scarborough, 6019 (B., Bot., Geol.)
WESTON, Dr. A. S„ 194 Crimea St., Morley, 6062.

WETTENHALL, Dr. N.. 14 Lascelles Ave., Toorak, Victoria. 3142.
WHITE, Mrs. M., 28 Birchwood Ave., Woodlands, 6018 (G.)

WHITE, R. C., 28 Birchwood Ave., Woodlands, 6018 (G.)

WHITE, S. R., 67 Moray Ave., Floreat Park, 6014.

WHITE, Dr. S. S., 9A Hogarlh Way, Bateman, 6153.

WHITING, N. L., 1 Miller Ave., Redcliffe, 6104.

WHITING, Mrs. P. A., 1 Miller Ave., Redcliffe, 6104.

WHITEHOUSE, G. V., 7 Pearsall St., Mullaloo, 6025.

WHITTINGTON, A. J., 2 Nairn Rd., Applecross, 6153.
WHITTINGTON, Mrs. F., 2 Nairn Rd., Applecross, 6153.

WIGGINS, B. R., Cranbrook Bakery, Cranbrook, 6321.

WILLIAMS, D. O., 66 Viking Rd., Dalkeith, 6009 (G.)

WILLIAMS, Mrs. J. A., 66 Viking Rd., Dalkeith, 6009.

WILLIAMSON, H. C., 36 Burke Drive, Attadale, 6156.

WILLIAMSON, Mrs. R., 36 Burke Drive, Attadale, 6156.

WILLIS, Ms E., 26 Roseberry St., Jolimont, 6014.

WILSON, Mrs. A., 193 Gr. Eastern H’way., Greenmount, 6056.

WILSON, Mrs. Helen, 44 Farrant St., Gooseberry Hill, 6076.

WILSON, I. J., Agricultural Dept., Jcrramungup, 6337 (B., Bot., Geogr.,
I., Ph.)

WILSON, R. G., 493 Gr. Eastern H’way., Greenmount, 6050.

WISE, Mrs. B., 55 Merrivva St., Ncdlands, 6009.

WITTWER, E., Kings Park Board Office, West Perth, 6005.
WOODMAN, Mrs. A., 16 Kanowna Ave., Redcliffe, 6104 (A., Bot., I,,
G., M.)

WOODS, Mrs. F. S., 45 Irvine St., Peppermint Grove, 6011 (B.)
WOODS, Dr. J. D., 45 Irvine St., Peppermint Grove, 6011.
WORRELL, Eric, Australian Reptile Park, Pacific H’way, North Gosford,
N.S.W. 2250 (A., G., R.)

WRIGHT, Mrs. J., Nursing Post, Kukerin, 6352.

WRIGHT, W., Nursing Post, Kukerin, 6352.

WYCHERLEY, Dr. P. R., Kings Park Botanic Gardens, West Perth, 6005.
WYLIE, Mrs. A., 25 King Albert Rd., Trigg, 6020.

WYLIE, K., 25 King Albert Rd., Trigg, 6020.

YATES, Mrs. A. M. F., 11 Alexander Ave., Claremont, 6010 (B., G.)
YATES, Dr. P. C., 11 Alexander Ave., Claremont, 6010 (B., G.)
YOUNG, Miss Jennifer, Box F350, G.P.O., Perth, 6001.

YOUNG, Miss Phyllis, 45 Floyd St., Trigg, 6020.

Printed by Wescolour Press, a division of West Australian Newspapers Ltd.

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14 September 30, 1977 No. 1

SOME INIMICAL EFFECTS OF THE DOMESTIC BEE ON THE
NATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA

By A. M. DOUGLAS, Mt. Lawley

The Domestic or Hive Bee, Apis niellifera, when introduced into a
balanced ecosystem, because of its way of life and sheer weight of num¬
bers, deprives some native insects of nectar essential for their existence.
Once certain native insects have disappeared as a result of this competition
the introduced bee becomes an essential part of the ecology of the area
as it pollinates plants which do not need specific insects for their fertilisa¬
tion. But if we desire to save the native insects threatened by such
competition it is essential that we ban the entry of apiarists into areas where
these insects still survive.

Over many years we have witnessed the gradual alteration of habitats
with a concomitant annihilation of elements of our fauna and flora. This
took place with few people realising the extent of the destruction or
apparently caring over-much about it. Recently the realisation that so
many of our birds, mammals, trees and flowers face possible disappearance
has caused governments to heed the advice of their experts and to
implement conservation recommendations.

Unfortunately few conservation bodies have as members entomologists
knowledgeable enough to press the case for the preservation of native
invertebrates, in particular the insects. There is little understanding, in
such circumstances, of the role played by the native invertebrates in the
ecosystems sought to be preserved.

True, thousands of millions of dollars are spent on studying how
insects affect our health, food, crops and stored products, but relatively
little is spent studying how invertebrates affect and stabilise the inter¬
dependencies of plants and animals. Inspection of any insect collection, such
as that of the Western Australian Museum, the CSIRO or the Department
of Agriculture, reveals that numerous insects which were abundant twenty
and more years ago are no longer found where they had been collected
—nor, often, the flowers with which they were associated. Because of
agricultural practices, housing development, surface drainage, application
of trace elements, aerial spraying, etc., whole populations have disappeared.
Different plants and animals have replaced them in the changed
environment.

Where the native insect populations have been reduced or displaced
by man's activities their place in the general ecology has been usurped
most conspicuously by the introduced Domestic Bee. It may now be
regarded as essential in these ecologically disturbed areas. This industrious
creature lives in an air-conditioned, disease-free home, carefully looked
after by the apiarist. It is assured of a regular supply of clean water
and transported to areas where food is always available. It works from
dawn to dusk collecting nectar and pollen and storing them in vast
quantities as honey and larval food—and taken advantage of by man. It
can, and will, work 365 days a year if nectar is available. Where apiaries
arc situated the bees range up to three miles from their respective hives,
collecting nectar indiscriminately from all sources. Jf the con^truc^n of
the blossom does not allow the bee to reach the nectar the bee will tear
it open, often not touching the pollen and thus no fertilisation takes place.

Native insects only become active when the ambient temperature has,
risen to a satisfactory level. Where an immense number of bees are work^
ing from dawn in the same area nectar has often completely disappeared
by the time the native insects arrive, about mid-morning. One has only
to visit a place where native insects could once be seen, and be there again
when an apiary is in the vicinity, to appreciate the reason for the scarcity
or absence of the native species.

it may well be asked what is the role, in this context, of the “domestic
bee gone wild,” the escapee from captivity? When the Domestic Bee
becomes feral its hive necessarily becomes stationary and life thenceforth
is hazardous. It can no longer depend on a regular and good supply of
water and must face enemies such as ants, some birds, possibly a local
cetonid beetle, the wax moth and in some areas the infection, “foul brood.''
The feral Domestic Bee has to fit in with local climatic conditions and
often does not thrive in the face of the several local hazards. Water
availability is, perhaps, the most critical factor affecting its survival.

By comparison with the “apiary bee,” which is carefully cushioned
from most of these hazards and often transported to optimum feeding areas,
the feral bee has a stressful existence and many colonies must perish. In
my opinion feral populations for the most part can only exist as such by
swarms continually escaping from apiaries. Thus feral bees do not really
constitute a serious ecological problem.

Our native bees and other insects which rely on nectar during their
brief breeding stage, appear as adults mostly in spring and early summer.
Unlike social insects such as the Domestic Bee, the adult phases of native
southern insects are purely for mating and preparing a food supply for
the next generation. This may be limited to a period of days or weeks.
Native insects do not rely on free water; they use nectar both for energy
and water requirements—without it they cannot exist. The emergence of
native insects coincides with the flowering of certain plants, a timing
which ensures the survival of both. If nectar is not available, or has been
appropriated earlier in the day by foraging Domestic Bees, the native
insects must die, and there is no alternative.

It is now too late in the day to rationalise commercial bee-keeping
enterprise in most parts of the South-West in an endeavour to save what
remains of those native insects adversely affected by competition with the
Domestic Bee. And it may be undesirable to attempt any such measures
now, for the Domestic Bee has come to play an essential role within the
changed ecosystem from which the native insects have largely been
displaced.

However apiaries should be excluded from those faunal reserves and
national parks where the native insects and the flora dependent on them
still exist in viable interdependence. These areas are now generally far
distant from major settled areas and cannot support a large feral Domestic
Bee population. So far economics have prevented apiarists exploiting
these virgin areas with their limited flowering periods.

Such areas which should be forbidden to apiarists can be defined by
official conservation agencies, such as the Environmental Protection
Authority, after research by appropriate survey teams. Suggested areas,
from my experience, are the Israelite Bay-Mt. Ragged reserves, some
malice areas south of Southern Cross, and the Murchison River reserve.

SOME NOTES ON THE MAMMALIAN FAUNA OF THE WESTERN
NULLARBOR PLAIN, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By M. G. BROOKER, Division of Wildlife Research, CSIRO, P.O. Box 84,
Lyneham, Canberra, A.C.T. 2602.

INTRODUCTION

Most of the observations reported here were made on the north¬
western Nullarbor Plain within 150 km of Rawlinna (Fig. 1).

Areas A, B, and C were areas for special study of Wedge-tailed
Eagles and were visited regularly from March 1967 to November 1973,

once in 1974 (September) and once in 1976 (September-October). These
areas are described in detail by Ridpath and Brooker (in prep.). All three
were predominantly myall (Acacia sowdenii) woodland with areas of blue-
bush and saltbush steppes, grasslands and dongas. Area A contained more
open grassland than either B or C and was not grazed by sheep or
cattle. Brief visits were made to Lake Brown, Carlisle Lakes and Forrest.

The vegetation of the western Nullarbor Plain has been mapped
by Beard (1975) and the soils and geology have been described by
Lowry (1970). This region has a low non-seasonal rainfall and is climatic¬
ally a desert. Droughts are common and often prolonged. Beard (1975)
reported twelve with a duration of over twelve months at Rawlinna in the
46 years 1922-1967 inclusive. The monthly rainfalls for Rawlinna during
1967 - September 1976 (Fig. 2), show that the periods January 1969 to
April 1973 and January to September 1976 were very dry. This country
has no natural surface water except for ephemeral pools after heavy rain
and some semi-permanent freshwater lakes round the edge of the Plain e.g.
Lake Brown and Lake Boonderoo which both contained water in September
1976. 1

Observations on mammals with the exception of those on Rabbits
were made opportunistically in the course of other work in and around
the eagle study areas. One or more people were in the field for approxi¬
mately 300 days during the period March 1967 to October 1976, and at
least. 200 hours were spent spot-lighting at night. The observations on
rabbits arc reported in more detail by Ridpath and Brooker (in prep.).

1972

1969

1971 50

JFMAMJJASOND

Fig. 2. Monthly rainfall (mm) for Rawlinna, W

1976

I i i i i i i i .i. j-i l i

J FMAMJJASOND

A., 1967 to September 1976.

MAMMALS RECORDED 1967-76

Echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus. An Echidna was seen in myall wood¬
land west of Area B on September 23, 1972 and fresh tracks of Echidnas
were observed on Areas A, B, and C.

Fat-tailed Dunnart, Sminthopsis crassicaudata. This species was
observed only on Areas A and B but is probably widespread. During 101
spot-light transects (each 16 km long and H hours in duration) in the
period May 1969 to September 1976, Dunnarts were sighted on eight
separate occasions—January 29, 1971 (I); January 26, 1972 (1); March
25, 1972 (1); March 14, 1973 (1); March 23, 1973 (1); November 22,
1973 (1); November 23, 1973 (1) and November 25, 1973 (2).

The remains of Dunnarts were found in the stomachs of Foxes
collected in May, 1969 and March 1973 and in the stomach of a Cat
collected in March 1973.

Hairy-nosed Wombat, Lasiorhinus latifrons. According to A. J. Car¬
lisle (pers. comm.), there are three isolated populations of wombats along

the southern section of the Nullarbor Plain in Western Australia. In the
early 1960’s, a rabbitter claimed to have shot one near Rawlinna and,
in 1976, the author was given descriptions of warrens and foot-prints
consistent with wombats from an area 100 km south of Naretha. Other
wombat sightings are given by Jenkins (1962).

Western Grey Kangaroo, Macropus fuligitiosus. This species appeared
to be as common as Red Kangaroo on the timbered sections of the Plain
and was recorded at Carlisle Lakes and at a point 75 km south of Neale
Junction. They occur in the sandhill and spinifex country along the
northern edge of the Nullarbor Plain (A. J. Carlisle pers. comm.). During
each winter visit (1969-73) Grey Kangaroos were present in the myall
woodland on the northern edges of Area A, at least 50 km from the
nearest surface water. They were seen on open country on Seemore
Downs in January and July 1972, and September 1976 during dry periods.
In September, 1974 a number were present in open bluebush steppes
where they had not been seen before by the author. There w f as a tall stand
(one metre) of speargrass (Stipa spp.) throughout this habitat at the time.

When a 4000 km- sheep station at Naretha was encircled with a 2 m
high dingo-proof fence in 1963, the manager claimed (E. Swann pers.
comm., 1970), that few Grey Kangaroos were enclosed. During subsequent
years to summer 1971-72, the density of Greys increased. In the summer
of 1971-72, large mobs (to 40) were observed and most females were
carrying joeys. In September 1972, few young at foot were seen and of
32 females examined in January-February 1972, only two had juveniles
accompanying them, and only six had pouch young (estimated range of
birth date: December 17 to January 16). Many animals in poor condition
had congregated along the inside of the perimeter fence. During January
and February, 1973, a similar congregating was observed but more
females (19 out of 23) carried joeys (birth dates: November 23 to January
11). The drought broke in March 1973. and in September of that year,
most females were carrying large pouch young or had small young at
foot.

Some of the factors which may have led to the reported increase
in numbers of Grey Kangaroos between 1963 and 1971 are:

(a) Provision of surface water by man. There was no evidence to
support this on the adjoining unfenced cattle station. Here the density of
Greys on the watered area did not appear to be any greater than on similar
unwatered country outside the boundary of the cattle station.

(b) Modification of habitat by sheep grazing, benefiting the Grey
Kangaroo. This change in habitat must have occurred rapidly as sheep
were not numerous or widespread on this station until 1963.

(c) Prevention of dispersal. Normal immigration and emigration of
Grey Kangaroos was prevented by the fence. When portions of the
population of certain mammal species are enclosed, some workers (c.g.
Krebs et al., 1969) have described considerable increases in their numbers
within the enclosures suggesting that dispersal is somehow necessary for
normal population regulation in these species.

(d) Reduced predation. Dingo numbers were reduced by man to a
low level and thus predation pressures on Grey Kangaroos may have
been reduced.

Red Kangaroo, Me gale in rufa. Red Kangaroos were found in all
habitats on Areas A, B. and C. On the dog-fenced sheep station at
Naretha their numbers did not appear to fluctuate as much as those of
Grey Kangaroos. In conditions of high day temperature and low food
availability on Area A in Feb-March 1970, tracks indicated a southern
movement of Red Kangaroo through the area. During this time, two
animals that were found dead showed no obvious signs of injury or disease.
At the same time, large numbers were present near Haig Cave (90 km
south-east of Area A) where an isolated storm had improved food supply.

In early September, 1976 there was a concentration of Red Kan¬
garoos on the northern end of Area A (where storm rain had fallen recently)
and they were rare in the country near Hut Donga. Over 30 mm of general
rain fell on September 28 and, by September 30. there were small groups
throughout the area.

Greater Long-eared Bat, Nyctophilus timoriensis. One found drowned
in tank, Area C (W.A. Museum M10344).

Lesser Long-eared Bat, N. geoffroyi. Collected on Areas A and B

White-striped Bat, Tadarida australis. Collected Area C and Lake
Brown.

House Mouse, Mas nmsculus. There was a plague of House Mice on
the Plain in autumn 1968 near the end of a period of high rainfall ( See
Fig. 2). This coincided with mouse plagues in a number of habitats
(including saltbush steppes) in Central Australia (Newsome and Corbett,
1975). In subsequent years (1969-73) mice were observed in small numbers
near homesteads and other human habitation. During 101 spot-light counts
May 1969 to September 1976, mice were observed once (November 1973).
Mice were plentiful at Plumridge Lakes and Neale Junction in March
1975 (Burbidge ct al., 1976).

Rabbit, Oryctnlagus cuniculus. Rabbits were first reported at Eucla i n
1894 (Long, 1974) and at Eyre in 1896 (Mason, 1897), and so probably
reached the north-west Nullarbor Plain about 1900. They arc now found
on the Plain, along the lake systems and north into the Great Victoria
Desert. Their numbers fluctuate considerably, and when abundant, they
are taken commercially by trappers based mainly on Rawlinna and For¬
rest. Trappers work up to 150 km north of the Transcontinental Railway
Line.

Fig. 3 shows the fluctuations in Rabbit numbers on Area A as
recorded along a 16 km transect. The decline in 1969 was probably due
to a drought-induced reduction in food (accentuated by extensive grass
fires on Area A in December 1968) and to the high density of predators
especially foxes. Myxomatosis-affected Rabbits were observed in August
and November 1973 and September 1974. In 1973-1974, there appeared
to be ample food and a low density of predators and so the relatively low
Rabbit density in these years could be due to myxomatosis.

The numbers of Rabbit warrens were recorded on two 16 km transects
on Area A and one on Area B in November 1973. The average density
was 142 warrens per km- (135-146) which greatly exceeds the densities
given by Myers and Parker (1965) for a semi-arid area (Tero Creek) i n
north-western N.S.W, (8 warrens per km 2 for whole area and 23 per km 2
for the most favoured habitat i.e. sand dunes).

In September 1974 when Rabbit numbers were not high (see Fig. 3),
D. Wood (pers. comm.) estimated the density of Rabbit warrens on a
portion of Area A by using the belt transect method of Kelker (1945).
From the number of active holes and the number of rabbits per active
hole seen on a sample of watched warrens, he calculated the number
of Rabbits to be 170 per km 2 .

The author did not visit the Nullarbor between October 1974 and
September 1976 but observations on changes in rabbit numbers during

Fig. 3.—Numbers of Rabbits counted on 16 km spotlight transect
near Hut Donga, July 1968 to September 1976. (Numbers after November
1973 are based on information from local inhabitants.)

this period were made by several Rawlinna residents. Numbers increased
to plague proportions during 1975—the third consecutive year of above
average rainfall. The seasonal conditions on the Nullarbor Plain at this
time probably paralleled those in some arid regions of South Australia
where Cooke (1977) estimated a population density of 3,500 rabbits/km-
at the height of the plague during 1974-75. Myxomatosis was observed
during October and November 1975. Numbers declined rapidly from Feb¬
ruary 1976. In autumn. Rabbits ‘were so poor that they weren't worth
eating’. By May. 1976 Rabbits were ‘scarce’. The decline was so dramatic
that most locals contended that the Rabbits had migrated elsewhere.
Approximately 10 feet of dead Rabbits were said to have been dug out
of a well (diameter c. 5 feet) on Secmore Downs. All observers agreed that
there were little or no signs of myxomatosis associated with the 1976
decline. Foxes were ‘thick’ from January 1976.

When the author visited the area in September 1976, Rabbit numbers
were low (see Fig. 3) and cats and foxes were still numerous. Rabbit
skeletons were frequently observed on the surface. There were no obvious
signs of rabbit damage on trees or shrubs.

Rabbits were able to survive through long and severe droughts in this
environment. Isolated instances of breeding were observed during such
droughts (November 1969 and 1970) but the survival of young born at
these times is unknown. Some of the warrens appear to be deep and, in
some cases, arc capped with limestone sheets.

Ridpath and Brooker (in prep.) discuss the Rabbit population in
relation to Wedge-tailed Eagles in this area.

Fox', Vulpes vitlpes, Foxes appeared on the southern edge of the Nul¬
larbor (Eucla) in 1911, about 17 years after Rabbits reached this point
(Long, 1974). They were seen on all sections of the Plain and along the
northern lakes.

On Areas A, B, and C, Foxes were numerous in early 1969 and again

TABLE 1.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF CATS AND FOXES COLLECTED NEAR HUT DONGA
(+ zr present, not counted)

Stomach contents

Cats

24 March Sept.

1973 1976

(D (8)

May

1969

(?)

Foxes

24 March
1973
(2)

Sept.

1976

(17)

INVERTEBRATES

Tape Worms .

. 2

Centipedes .

. 5

Scorpions .

. 3

Spiders .

. 6

-f

Crickets .

. 20

Ground weevils .

. 20

-f

Carab beetles .

Grasshoppers .

. 1

Dragonflies .

Unidentified .

. +

REPTILES

Diplodactylus sp.

Heteronotia binoei? .

Phyllurus milii .

Aprasia inaurita .

Amphibolurus nullarbor .

Tympanocryptis lineata .

Agamid .

Ctenotus uber .

Egernia sp. .

Morethia adelaidensis
Sphenomorphus richardsonii
Trachydosaurus rugosus ....

Typhlina bltuberculala .

BIRDS

Wedge-tailed Eagle (nestling)

Little Quail .

MAMMALS

Fat-tailed Dunnart .

Rabbit .

Cattle (as carrion) .

Unidentified (fur.) .

in 1976. In both cases, above average rainfall had occurred in the previous
two years and Rabbit numbers were high. By August 1969, the number of
Foxes had declined and those remaining had congregated on bores, were
less wary and included a high proportion of mangy animals. Rabbit num¬
bers (see Fig. 3) were already low and the high density of Foxes could
have contributed to this (D. Wood pers. comm.).

In September 1976, Foxes were still numerous and in good condition
despite the fact that Rabbits were scarce. This could have been due to
the availability, at this time, of alternate food sources (see Table 1).

Cat, Felis cat us. It is probable that Cats reached the western Nul-
larbor Plain earlier than Foxes as they were introduced on the southern
edge to control rabbits in 1899 (Long, 1974) and were present at Eyre in
1896 according to Mason (1897).

During the period reported on here (1967-76), Cats appear to have
built up in numbers prior to 1968 and declined during the ensuing drought.
There would have been ample food in the good seasons of 1967 and early
1968 including a plague of Mas musculus in autumn 1968. Cats were again
numerous in September 1976.

Cats were observed hunting agamid lizards and Mulga and Naretha
Parrots. The items in stomachs collected in March 1973 and September
1976 near Hut Donga are shown in Table 1 and some are illustrated in
Figs. 4, 5 and 6.

Dingo, Cam's jamiliaris. Dingoes were seen more frequently in the
malice and lake systems on the west and north of this section of the
Nullarbor Plain than on the plain. In the vicinity of Areas A and B, there
were three sightings in 1969, one in 1972 and three in 1973 which suggests
their presence in these more open areas during good seasons (see Fig. 2
for rainfalls). The Dingo is trapped and/or poisoned by pastoralists and
government doggers as far north as Neale Junction and Carlisle Lakes.

Camel, Camelus dromedarius. Camels are common along the south¬
western edge of the Nullarbor Plain (Long, 1976) and were seen on all
trips by the author along the northern edge. They were present at Cooper
Creek (145 km north of Neale Junction) in May 1972. It is not known
when feral Camels reached this area but their arrival probably followed
the gold rushes in Western and Central Australia in the 1890’s. They occa¬
sionally cause damage to dingo-proof fences on sheep stations near Naretha
and were seen on the plain (February 1970—Area A, May 1972—Sleeper,
July 1972—Area A and September 1972—Clarrie’s Donga).

The stomach of a female shot September 1972 near Naretha con¬
tained leaves, stems and fruits of quandong (Santalum acuminatum) while
a group observed near Lake Brown (March 1972) was grazing Lotus
cruentus. The local dogger saw a small calf in November, 1971 near Carlisle
Lakes.

Sheep, Ovis aries . Domestic Sheep were not present in any numbers
in the Rawlinna area until the early 1960’s when large stations were
established north-west and south of the town. Four Sheep were seen on
Area A in September 1970 (a very dry period). They were 30 km from
the nearest water and about 80 km north of other sheep.

Cattle, Bos taurus . Cattle were introduced to this area in the 1920’s
and there are now three cattle stations north of the railway line. These
stations are restricted to a region in which underground water suitable for
livestock has been found (Lowry, 1970). Other bores have been sunk, to
the east and north (e.g. Sleeper, Lake Brown), presumably without success.

Man, Homo sapiens. Tindale (1940) reports that the Miming Abori¬
ginal tribe lived along the south edge of the western Nullarbor, the
Murunitja on the north-west and the Wonggai in the northern lakes
country. There was some contact between the southern and northern
tribes (Bates, 1921) but the central region of the plain was not permanently
inhabited. The Miming did not venture more than 65 km from the coast¬
line in their normal day-to-day activity (Wright, 1971) and probably relied
on some food sources (e.g. seafoods, penguins, some plants) which were
not available to the northern tribes. Koolgahbin Claypan is said to be the
most southerly ceremonial ground of the tribe in that area (D. L. Serventy
pers. comm.) and wurlies still stood near here in September 1972.

Fig. 4.—The contents of Cat stomach (No. 1) collected near Hut
Donga, September 1976, includes 1 Aprasia inaurita, 34 Tympanocryptis
lineata, 1 Phyllurus milii and 4 Ctenotus uber.

Fig. 5.—The contents of Cat stomach (No. 2) collected near Hut
Donga, September 1976, includes 15 Tympanocryptis lineata, 3 Phyllurus
milii , 1 Egernia sp.. 1 Morethia adelaidensis and 1 Typhlina hitukerculata.

Fig. 6.—The contents of Cat stomach (No. 17) collected near Hut
Donga, September 1976, includes 1 Amphibolurus nullarbor, 15 Tympano-
cryptis lineato, 3 Ctenotus nber, 1 Morethia cidelaidensis and 1 Turnix velox
with egg.

Stone artifacts were collected on Areas A, B and C and along the
Forrest Road as far east as Clarrie’s Donga. There are concentrations
near Lake Brown and the claypans 25 km south-east of it. Aboriginal
visits to such normally waterless areas probably occurred from the north
after heavy rain had filled the claypans and dongas.

Three members of a group of six northern Aborigines died of thirst
in late September 1963, while attempting to walk south from Neale
Junction across the Plain (Allan. 1964). The party tried to obtain water
from the roots of myall (Acacia sawdemi) as they had previously done
from eucalypts in their native desert (T. O. Wolfe pers. comm.). This
party was one of the last to ‘come out’ of the desert around the Nullarbor
Plain.

The first non-Aboriginal men on the north-western Nullarbor Plain
were Giles and his party who travelled with camels south-west from
Boundary Dam (Forrest Lakes) in September 1875, passing about 40 km
south of Carlisle Lakes and about 25 km north of Area A (Giles, 1889).

Two surveyors, Mason and Younge, traversed the country from Yay-
oudle Rock Hole to near Boundary Dam in July 1896, on an expedition
‘to inquire into a reported incursion of rabbits’. Near Boundary Dam,
Aborigines stole their camels and they walked about 260 km to safety
at Eucla. At this time, kangaroo shooters were operating on the Plain
north of Eucla and there were 10,000 sheep on Mundrabilla Station
(Mason, 1897).

The proposed construction of a transcontinental railway line resulted
in further exploration by a party led by J. Muir in 1901 (Beard, 1975)
and by Gibson in 1908 (Gibson, 1909).

Most present-day residents on the north-west Plain are associated

TABLE 2.—MONOTREMES, MARSUPIALS AND NATIVE RODENTS RECORDED ON THE
WESTERN NULLARBOR PLAIN.

Recent cave
deposits

Prior to
1940

Recorded

1967-1976

Order Monotremata

Family Tachyglossidae

Tachyglossus aculeatus .

Order Marsupialia

Family Dasyuridae

Dasyurus geoffroii .

. +

Dasycercus cristicauda .

. +

Phascogale calura .

Sminthopsis crassicaudata ....

. 4 -

Antochinomys spenceri .

. +

Sarcophilus harrisii .

. +

Family Peramelidae

Macrotfs lagotis .

. +

Perameles bouqainville .

. +

Chaeropus ecaudatus .

. +

Family Phalangeridae

Trichosurus vulpecula .

. H-

Cercartetus concinnus

. +

PsGudochoirus occidentalis ....

. +

Family Macropodidae

Bettongia lesueur .

B. pcncillata .

. +

Onychogaloa lunata .

Lagorchestes hirsutus .

. +

Macropus fuliginosus .

. +

Megaleia rut a .

. +

Potorous platyops .

-U

Caloprymnus campestris .

-j-

Family Vombatidae

Lasiorhinus ladIrons .

. +

Order Rodontia

Family Muridae

Notomys mltchellii .

. +

N. luscus .

Leporillus conditor .

. +

L. apical is .

. +

Pseudomys rawlinnae .

. +

P. hermannsburgensis .

. +

with small settlements along the railway line (completed in 1917), with
s heep and cattle stations situated north of the line and with government-
sponsored Dingo-control operations in the area. Trappers move in when
Rabbits are present in high numbers.

DISCUSSION

In the period 1967-76, only four native mammals (excluding bats)
were definitely recorded in the western Nullarbor Plain region. Table 2
hsts species which have been recorded in recent cave deposits on the
southern edge of the Plain by Lundelius (1957, 1963) and Merrilees (1969).
ft also shows species known from sight or specimen records to have been
,n this area prior to 1940. Specimens of five species (Antechinomys spen-
c ' er i> Macrotis lagotis, Onycnogalea lunata, Pseudomys rawlinnae and P.
hcrniannsburgensis) with Rawlinna recorded as location were probably
donated to the Australian Museum by A. S. Le Souef prior to August

1929 (their registration date). There are two specimens of Dasycercus
c . r l stlcau da from Rawlinna in the same museum (registration date July 30 r
*^28), although they are not cited by Troughton (1957). Ride (1970) gives
Rawlinna as a locality for Notomys fuse us.

A. J. Carlisle (pers. comm.) states that ‘zebra rats 1 were plentiful
between 1928 and 1936 but last seen 1938 and Barrett (1930) mentions
a striped bandicoot—these possibly refer to Parameles bougainville. A. J.
Carlisle also last saw in 1938 a number of other species i.c. Rabbit-
^ared Bandicoots (Macrotis lagotis), Grass-nest Rats (? Bettongia penicil-
lata) and Stick-nest Rats (? Leporillus conditor). His most recent sighting
°t a Native Cat (? Dasyurus geoffroii) was in 1947.

While it is not possible to accurately document which mammals
were present here in pre-European days, it can be said that there has
been a decline and that grazing by domestic animals did not contribute
to this decline as most of the country is still unoccupied.

The mammal specimens from Rawlinna cited above were all col¬
led before 1930. A. J. Carlisle believes that the major decline in
species now absent occurred in the late 1930’s. The estimated severity of
droughts at Rawlinna since rainfall has been recorded (1917) is shown
in Fig. 7 using the ‘drought index’ method of Newsome (1966). This index
allows for the estimated evaporation from the soil in periods during
which rain sufficient to cause pastures to respond did not fall and would
be expected to measure the degree of aridity at any time. The two
longest and most severe droughts occurred in 1933 and 1935 and could
nave hastened the disappearance of some species in this decade.

A long-time resident of this area, the late Mrs. Bertha Bennett, of
Nanambinia, considered that extensive grass fires wiped out some species
marsupials. Such fires occurred in 1942. While natural fires would
nave occurred on the Nullarbor Plain before the advent of white man, the
deliberate and accidental man-made fires which have started since would

Q) 0

| -250
j "500

T'TV '11T "11 1 TV”

I_I_I_111 I I I I I_I_I_I_I I I I I I I

1940 1945 1950 1955

'250

i^ n^i iiv i "H1TV

“500

_I_L

1960

I I I

1965

I_I_L

1970

J_L

I l l

1975

Fig. 7.—Drought indices (Newsome 1966) based on rainfall and
ev aporation data from Rawlinna, 1917-1976.

be expected to have a greater effect upon the vegetation since such fires
would tend to cover the same ground more often and would not be asso¬
ciated with thunderstorms which would put out some of the fires started
by lightning. Aboriginal man probably visited the Plain only during wet
seasons and so did not have the opportunity to fire the area as often
as in other parts of Australia.

Grazing by Rabbits and increased firing could have eliminated the
water-rich perennial plants required by Leporillus (Robinson, 1973, Watts
and Eves, 1976). Rabbits, especially when very numerous, could have taken
over the burrow systems of Bcttongia lesueur (Calaby, 1969).

Cats and Foxes are sometimes present in large numbers when Rab¬
bits, their staple diet, are scarce. Such situations occurred twice in the
period 1967 to 1976. Under these conditions, these predators take small
mammals and reptiles (Table 1) and could be expected to have competed
with dasyurids when they were present.

It is of interest to note that the small dasyurid Sminthopsis eras -
sicaudata has survived. A study of its ecology in this area may help to
explain why other species have been eliminated.

The most likely future uses (tourism and rabbit trapping), of the
Nullarbor Plain would not be expected to affect the survival of the native
mammals now present. A number of conservation reserves cither exist or
are proposed in this region and their faunas are being surveyed (Bur-
bidge et al., 1976). The chances for re-colonisation by previously-common
species, either from undiscovered isolated populations or by re-introduction,
are probably not good while Rabbits, Cats and Foxes remain.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to A. J. Carlisle (Kalgoorlie) and to E. Swann and
R. Absalom (Rawlinna) for historical information and their hospitality;
to CS1RO colleagues D. S. Hart, J. Bywater, M. S. Jones and A. J. Est-
bergs for assistance in the field; to G. M. Storr (W.A. Museum) and J. C.
Wombey (CSIRO, Canberra) for identifying the reptiles found in fox and
cat stomachs; to M. Archer and D. Kitchener (W.A. Museum) for
mammal identifications; to B. J. Marlow (Australian Museum, Sydney)
for details on Rawlinna specimens housed in that museum; to Frank Knight
(CSIRO, Canberra) for drawing the figures; and to Dr J. H. Calaby (CS1RO,
Canberra) for his comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ALLAN, J. 1964. Wongai patrol. Walkabout, 30: 34-37.

BARRETT, C. 1930. Wild nature of the Nullarbor Plain. Aust. Museum
Magazine, 1; 115-121.

BATES, D. M. 1921. Ooldea Water. Proe. Roy. Geograph. Soc. A ust . —
S. Aust. Branch, 21: 73-78.

BEARD, J. S. 1975. The vegetation of the Nullarbor Area. Explanatory
notes to sheet 4 of Vegetation Survey of Western Australia. Perth:
University of W.A. Press.

BURBIDGE, A. A., et. al. 1976. The wildlife of some existing and pro¬
posed reserves in the Great Victoria and Gibson Deserts, W.A.
Wildl. Res. Bull. West. Aust., 5: 1-16.

CALABY, J. H. 1969. Australian mammals since 1770. Aust. Nat. Hist..
16: 271-275.

COOKE, B. D. 1977. The rabbit in inland Australia. Aust. Mammal
Soc. Bull., 3: 17-18.

GIBSON, C. G. 1909. Country lying along the route of the proposed
transcontinental railway in Western Australia. Bull. Geol. Stirv. West.
Aust., 37.

GILES, E. 1889. Australia Twice Traversed. 2 vols. London: Low, Marston.
JENKINS, C. F. H. 1962. The hairy-nosed wombat in W.A. West. Aust.
Nat., 8: 77-78.

KELKER, G. H. 1945. Measurement and interpretation of forces that
determine populations of managed deer. Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan Univ.,
Ann Arbor.

KREBS, C. J., B. L. KELLER and R. H. TAMARIN 1969. Microtus
population biology: demographic changes in fluctuating populations
of M. ochrogaster and M. pennsylvanicus in southern Indiana. Ecology,
50: 602-607.

LONG, J. L. 1974. Introduced birds and mammals in Western Australia.
Agric. Protection Board of IV.A. Tech. Series, 1.

LOWRY, D. C. 1970. Geology of the Western Australian part of the
Eucla Basin. Bull. Geol. Surv. West. A list., 122.

LUNDELIUS, E. L. 1957. Additions to knowledge of the ranges of West¬
ern Australian mammals. W. Anst. Nat., 5, 173-182.

LUNDELIUS, E. L. 1963. Vertebrate remains from Nullarbor Caves,
Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 46: 75-80.

MASON, A. 1897. Report of an expedition in the south-eastern portion
of Western Australia to inquire into a reported incursion of rabbits.
Perth: Govt. Printer.

MERRILEES, D. 1968. Remains of the pig-footed bandicoot in Nullarbor
Caves. W. A ust. Nat., 11 : 19.

MYERS, K., and B. S. PARKER. 1965. A study of the biology of the
wild rabbit in climatically different regions in eastern Australia.
CSIRO Wildl. Res., 10: 1-32.

NEWSOME, A. E. 1966. Estimating severity of drought. Nature, 209* 904

NEWSOME, A. E. and L. K. CORBETT. 1975. Outbreaks of rodents in
semi-arid and arid Australia. In Rodents in Desert Environments,
(Eds. I. Prakash and P. K. Ghosh). The Hague: W. Junk. pp.117-153.

RIDE, W. D. L. 1970. A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia.
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

RIDPATH, M. G. and M. G. BROOKER. The ecology of the Wedge¬
tailed Eagle in Western Australia. I. Breeding and movements (In
prep.).

ROBINSON, A. C. 1975. The Sticknest Rat Leporillus conditor on Frank¬
lin Island, Nuyts Archipelago, S.A. A ust. Mammal., 1: 319-327.

TINDALE, N. B. 1940. Distribution of Aboriginal tribes of Australia.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. A ust., 64: 104-231.

TROUGHTON, E. 1957. Furred Animals of Australia. Sydney: Angus and
Robertson.

WATTS, C. H. S. and B. M. EVES. 1976. Notes on the nests and diets
of the White-tailed Stick-nest Rat, Leporillus apicalis, in northern
South Australia. S. A ust. Nat., 51: 9-12.

WRIGHT, R. V. S. 1971. The archaeology of Koonalda Cave. In Abori¬
ginal Man and Environment in Australia (eds. D. J. Mulvaney and
J. Golston). Canberra: A.N.U. Press, pp. 105-113.

OBSERVATIONS ON QUANDONG TREES,

SANT ALUM ACUMINATUM

By Mrs. M. B. MILLS, Merredin
PART I

Since the drought years of 1968-69, 1 have been making observations
on Quandong trees throughout Merredin district. In June 1973, I received
a letter from Dr. M. S. Buttrose of the C.S.I.R.O. Division of Horticultural
Research, Adelaide, South Australia, making enquiries about Quandong
trees. This added to my previous interest, and I stepped up my activities
regarding Quandong tree observations.

During August 1973 Dr. Buttrose visited Western Australia and came
to Merredin to sec our Quandong trees. Our first stop for investigations
was in the town, in Mr. and Mrs. Rutherford’s garden. Here three mature
trees and a number of small ones were growing, all the trees looking
healthy, growing amidst flowers, shrubs and trees.

One Quandong tree and some small ones were of particular interest.
In a slightly curving line on a flower bed was a row of small Quandong
trees, about a dozen of them extending for almost 25 ft. Previously Mr.

Rutherford had told me that he and his wife had discovered while digging
around shrubs in their garden that these little Quandong trees were all
connected by a long, single root system to the parent tree. Dr. Buttrose
and I were able to see for ourselves the strong root system extending
from the parent tree and the little trees growing vertically from it. Mr.
and Mrs. Ruthrford had removed several of these little trees and trans¬
planted them into pots. However they did not survive.

A visit was then made to a group of Quandong trees on Chandler
Road, about ten miles north of Mcrrcdin. There was a large number of
healthy mature, but rather small trees on an incline amidst Eucalypt
trees, Acacia and scrub. These trees would receive a good run off of water
from the incline. One tree in this group had a large, red flowering Mistletoe
on it, but this seemed to have little effect on the tree, as it produces
fruit each year, a heavy crop, followed by a light crop. Nearly all the
trees in this group bear good crops of fruit, every other year, as it seems
to be their habit to rest a year between fruiting.

Close by, and north of this group is another stand of Quandong
trees, which differ somewhat from the first group, in that they are much
larger and taller, and their leaves are broad and fleshy. I he fruit is
large and loose skinned around the nut, whereas in the first mentioned
ones the fruit is bright red and fitting tightly around the nut. There is
also a slight difference in the flavour of the fruit. The trees in this group
bear large amounts of fruit every other year.

A visit was also made to view Quandong trees on York road, east of
Merredin. One particular tree was marked out for continued observations,
this was a small Quandong tree growing near the roadside, in sandplain
country in heavy yellow sand. This tree had a parasitic vine closely
entwined about it, the Dodder vine, and as it has no contact with the
ground, growing on the Quandong, it would appear to sap its vitality.
However the little Quandong tree does bear quite a lot of fruit, a dark
red, tasty fruit.

It was decided to keep a special watch on two stands of trees, those
on Chandler road to be known as No. 1 group and the Quandong tree
on York road with the Dodder vine entwined on it to be known as the
Quandong Dodder plant.

Observations were taken on Quandong trees on Mrs. Ada Blair’s
property, Homelands Farm, Southern Cross, July 31, 1973. I visited
Mrs. Blair’s property and Mrs. Blair showed me a group of Quandong
trees growing naturally in her garden. They looked healthy and were
bearing large green fruit, some of it starting to turn red. The trees were
about eight years old, very tall, the tallest Quandong trees I have yet
seen. We estimated their height to be 25 ft. These trees had grown straight
up-right, not in their usual rather bushy manner. The main trunk was very
slender. A shelter had been erected near this group of Quandong trees
and Mr. and Mrs. Blair thought perhaps this had something to do with
their extraordinary height. They bear fruit each year, which is very clean
and free from grubs and dirt. The soil around them has been frequently
cultivated with cow manure added to it, also a lot of dried leaves from
other types of trees near by. Mr. Blair told me that the soil is a rich red
loam. The soil around the trees appeared to be warm and humid. There
was a lot of grass about the trees, perhaps barley grass or wild oats.

Mr. and Mrs. Blair showed me the small Quandong trees which had
come up naturally from seeds scattered about the mature trees two years
previously. It was most surprising to sec hundreds of little trees as thick
as the grass they were growing amongst. I counted 50 little trees in one
square foot. The height of the little trees ranged from just showing through
the soil to two or three inches in height.

A young Quandong tree about four years old was shown to me
where it had germinated close against a wall of a galvanised iron shed,
with another building a few feet away. This young tree was tall and slender,
about 5-6 ft. in height, and with a slender main trunk, as in the case
of the trees previously mentioned. The manner of growth could be likened
to a slender young Eucalypt sapling.

Other trees further over in the orchard were more compact and

bushy as is the usual habit of these trees. They were all healthy and
bearing fruit, the ground well cultivated and fertilised with cow manure.
The soil where all these trees are growing is quite wet, but not boggy.

In April 1973 over three inches of rain was recorded in 24 hours,
and there had been other earlier good falls of rain.

During the winter I examined a group of young Quandong trees
on Nungarin road, about five miles north of Nokanning. There were 128
small trees in the group ranging in height from six inches to almost
2 ft. The little trees looked healthy and were growing close to one
mature Quandong tree which appeared rather old and straggly. I dug
around some of the little trees with a spade to see if they were connected
by a root system, but they had germinated from seed.

There was a big, old eucalypt growing close to the trees otherwise
the area was clear of trees or scrub, except for a heavy covering of grass
and wild oats around the trees. The land was low-lying and appeared to
receive a lot of water as run-off from the railway line near by.

THE BIRDS OF BALD ISLAND

By G. T. SMITH

INTRODUCTION

Bald Island is 45 km east of Albany and lies 1.2 km from the mainland.
It is a small island of 770 ha, 4.6 km by 2.3 km at its widest point, bounded
by a steep escarpment with numerous heavily vegetated gullies running
into the sea.

Storr (1965), who visited the island from May 30 to June 4, 1959,
has described the geology, vegetation and birds of the island. He classified
the vegetation into six formations:— Succulent mat (Carpobrotus aequi-
lateriis , Disphyma australe, Rhagodia baccatci); Tussock land (Poa caes-
pitosa, Scirpus tiodosus, Lepidosperma gladiatum); Heath (Melaleuca par-
viflora, M. nucrophylla, Thryptomene saxicola); Peppermint scrub (Agonis
flexuosa): Bushy Yatc forest (Eucalyptus lehmanni); Teatree forest (Mela¬
leuca pubescens).

This article lists the birds recorded on two short trips to the island on
October 27-29, 1971 and April 29 to May 3, 1976.

BIRD LIST

Little Penguin, Eudyptula minor. Common around the NW, N and
NE sides of the island. The sandy gullies running into Barker Bay on the
north side had large numbers of burrows, probably of this species.

Great-winged Petrel, Pterodroma macroptera. Burrows of this species
were common in the NW half of the island, wherever the sand was deep
enough. Found in the Succulent mat, Tussock land. Peppermint scrub and
Melaleuca lanceolata thickets. Burrows were found from the coast to the
top of the island, and were most common in the tussock land and teatree
forest.

In October three chicks were found, all were in down with the
primary wing and tail pins just bursting. A number of birds were still
coming in at dusk, but from their numbers it would appear that most
of the chicks had fledged. In May there were large numbers arriving at
dusk, and frequent calling throughout the night. Some birds had laid and
were incubating. Occasional fresh eggs were found on the surface. They
were very common in the surrounding sea, and in May a raft of 30 to 40
birds was seen near the island.

Black Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo. One bird seen on the north
coast in 1971. Not recorded by Storr.

Australian Goshawk, Accipiter fasciatus. In May 1971 one pair nested
in a Callitris preissii, 15 m above the ground. The two chicks were in
down but with the primary wing feathers well developed. A Great-winged
Petrel with its brain pecked out was found under the nest. Not recorded
by Storr or in 1976.

Wedge-tailed Eagle, Aquila audax. One seen soaring over NW end
of the island in 1976.

White-breasted Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster. One pair seen. One
skeleton collected near NE corner of the island.

Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus. In 1976 a single bird seen on a
number of occasions.

Kestrel. Falco cenchroidcs. One and possibly two pairs seen in 1971,
not recorded in 1976.

Brown Quail, Synoicus ypsilophorus. Several birds flushed in Tussock
land in 1971 and 1976.

Sooty Oystercatcher, Haematopus fuliginosus. Two and three birds
were seen on the NE coast in 1971 and 1976, respectively.

Silver Gull, Larus novaehollandiae. Common around the coast. In
1971 15 birds roosted in the Succulent mat on the NE corner of the
island. There was no sign of breeding.

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii. Only a few seen around the coast.

Brush Bronzewing, Phaps elegans. Common in the Tussock land and
heath areas.

Fan-tailed Cuckoo, Cacomantis pvrrhophanus. Several heard calling in
both 1971 and 1976.

Golden Bronze Cuckoo, Chrysococcyx plagosus. Several heard on the
top of the island in 1971. Not recorded by Storr or in 1976.

Kookaburra, Dacelo gigas. A number of birds seen in the tops of
the gullies on the north side.

Welcome Swallow, Hirundo neoxena. Common on the top of the
island especially over the Tussock land.

Pipit, Antlms novaeseelandiae. One bird seen in the Tussock land on
the NE corner of the island. Not recorded by Storr or in 1976.

Broad-tailed Thornbill, Acanthiza apicalis. Common in all formations
except the Tussock land and Succulent mat.

Spotted Scrub-Wren, Sericornis maculatus. Very common in the more
densely vegetated areas of the gullies and on the top of the island.

White-breasted Robin, Eopsaltria georgiana. Only one bird seen in
one of the larger gullies on the north-east side in 1971 and only a few
seen in 1976.

Grey Fantail, Rhipidura fuliginosa. Common in wooded areas through¬
out the island.

Golden Whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis. Only recorded in the larger
and damper gullies with Eucalyptus lehmanni at the SE end of the island.

Silvereye, Zosterops gouldi. Common in small flocks of up to 12
birds throughout the island in 1971. In 1976 only a few birds seen.

New Holland Honeyeater, Phylidonyris novaehollandiae. In 1971
uncommon on the NW end of the island, but common at the SE end
where Banksia praernorsa, Leucopogon spp., Gastrolobium bilobium and
E. lehmanni were flowering. In 1976 they were common throughout the
island.

Red-eared Firetail, Emblcma oculata. A few birds seen in the gullies
on the NE side of the island and in the Melaleuca scrub.

DISCUSSION

A total of 27 birds have now been recorded from the island, 21 of
them land birds.

Excluding migrants (Fan-tailed Cuckoo, Golden Bronze Cuckoo),
vagrants (Purple-crowned Lorikeet, Pipit) and the raptors, the island has
12 resident land birds. This compares with the 56 species recorded in
10 km radius of Channel Point on the mainland opposite the island (Smith,
unpublished data). Only the Australian Goshawk and the Wedge-tailed
Eagle have been known to breed on the island, the other raptors appear
to be visitors from the mainland.

Allowing for differences in observers and the timing of the visits
there appears to have been no change in the species composition of the
resident birds or any significant changes in their populations. One possible
exception is the White-breasted Robin which Storr recorded as common
in 1959; only one bird was recorded in 1971 and only a few in 1976.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Department of Fisheries and Wildlife organised and provided
the transport for the October 1971 trip. Drs. A. A. Burbidge and A. N.
Start and Messrs. E. D. Kabay and A. M. J. Hopkins kindly provided
the bird list from their April 1971 trip.

REFERENCES

STORR, G. M. 1965. Notes on Bald Island and the adjacent mainland.
W.A. Naturalist, 9: 187-196.

JOHN WOLLASTON’S BIRDS

By ERIC H. SEDGWICK, Harvey

Wollaston's Picton Journal, compiled by Canon A. Burton, reveals
that Archdeacon John Ramsden Wollaston, in his record of events between
April 1841 and January 1844, made a number of references to the bird-
life of the coastal plain. Wollaston, of course, had no means of pre¬
cisely identifying the birds that he encountered and, in endeavouring to
describe what he saw, leaned heavily upon his English experiences. It is
not always possible to identify precisely the species which he records.

The following is ari abstract of references taken from the second
edition of Wollaston's Picton Journal (Paterson. Brokensha: Perth) with
an attempt to identify the birds in the light of present knowledge.

p. 5—“the horrid screech of the great black, or (of the] white,
cockatoo”. (The White-tailed Black Cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus baiulini
and the Long-billed Corella, Cacatua tcnuiroslris. The Corella no longer
occurs in this area, but vide Birds of W.A., Serventy & Whittell, the Long¬
billed Corella was frequent in the early days of settlement).

p. 17—“Emus are rarely seen. ... I have seen wild turkeys”. (Emu,
Dromaius novaehollandiae, and Australian Bustard, Eupodotis australis).

p. 25—“a beautiful parrot, called here ‘twenty-eight’ from the noise
it makes resembling those words.” (Port Lincoln Parrot, Barnardius zon-
arius. It would appear from this reference that ‘Twenty-eight’ a name
still commonly used for the coastal race of this bird, was in use from
the very early days of settlement in Western Australia).

p. 28—"of swallows we have a few and excessively tame; so much
so that one cherished pair built in one of our rooms and fly over our
heads as we sit at meals. They resemble the martin but I have seen two
sorts. There is a beautiful little bird too here very familiar which we call
the robin. It has a brilliant red breast and its habits resemble that of
England, but it is smaller and much more delicately made. We have
moreover a pretty black and white bird like a wagtail, very tame and
frequently seen on the backs of animals. There is a difference, however,
in its deportment—it moves its tail horizontally instead of vertically.”
(Welcome Swallow, Hirundo neoxena . and probably. Tree Martin, Petro-
c belief on nigricans, Scarlet Robin, Petroica multicolor , and Willy Wagtail,
Rhipidura leucophrys. It is evident that the vernacular names used were
applied then as now. Also mentioned are “some cockatoos.”)

p. 35—“We have plenty of tame parrots in two or three varieties,
very beautiful. Also a white cockatoo . . (The most likely parrots would
be the Port Lincoln Parrot, the Red-capped Parrot, Purpureicephalus
spurius, perhaps the Western Rosella, Platycercus icterotis).

p. 43—“a diver and a wigeon”. (No Australian waterfowl closely
resemble either the European divers or the Wigeon so one may only
speculate upon the species to which reference is made. (Musk Duck,

Bizi ura lob at a, and White-eyed Duck, Aythya australis, appear possibilities),
p. 44—“a few ducks”,
p. 52—“a good many wild turkeys.”

p. 80—“I hope the tiny birds 1 sent by Mr. Sampson will bear their
voyage. ... I have now an Australian eagle which John has skinned
and preserved; a most noble bird. Indeed the birds of prey in this country
are very numerous and of many most beautiful varieties, eagle, hawks,
falcons and owls.” (The choice here is too wide to hazard a useful guess
as to specific identity.) .

p. 92—“The bronze-winged pigeon, a beautiful bird, is excellent
eating and so are ducks and quails. . . . Even crows sometimes are not
despised.” (The Common Bronzewing, Phaps chalcoptera. ‘Quail is not
definitive. Stubble Quail, Coturnix pectoralis , doubtlessly moved into
cleared areas with little delay, but Painted Quail, / urnix varia, would
have been more likely in bush areas. The crow would probably be the
Australian Raven, Corvits coronoides).
p. 96—‘Two young emus. ...”

p. 115—“Mr. Drummond (the botanist] told me that at first he sub¬
sisted his family almost entirely on black swans. These arc rarely to be
got now. (Black Swan, Cygnus at rat us),

p. 1 17—“the hawks and falcons which abound here, annoy us much
by taking off . . . our young chickens and turkeys.” (Australian Goshawk,
Accipiter fasciatus, and Little Falcon, Falco longipennis, would be the
most likely predators in this role).

p. 120—“four wild ducks and two divers” (See p. 43 above. As
Musk Duck are obviously ducks this later reference seems to suggest
that some other diving bird is intended. Wollaston would surely have
referred to grebe as ‘dabchicks’ and would have recognised coot and
cormorants as such? Reference is here made to a marked decline in
animal life (in 1842!) attributed to the early settlers being forced to live
off the land).

p. 123—“a few birds” (The reference is to small birds prepared as
skins for a friend in Britain).

p. 144—“an irregular row of 23 pelicans” (Australian Pelican, Pelc-
canus conspicillatus).

p. 146—“1 have just made the pen with which 1 am writing from
an eagle’s wing. John shot a magnificent bird of this kind. ... It was
strong and large enough to carry off a kid.” (Wedge-tailed Eagle, Aquila
audax, appears likely. See also p. 80.)

p. 147—“A native brought us a quite new dish, three ibises, the
colour a delicate light brown, yellow legs and green bill, altogether very
beautiful.” (A puzzling reference as the description does not fit any of
our ibis or ibis-like birds and in any case, until recent times, ibis appear
to have been quite infrequent in the far South-West. Possibly the birds
were rails, e.g. Black-tailed Native-hen? Nankeen Night-Heron, Nycticorax
caledonicus, a bird which would be vulnerable to a native hunter, almost
qualifies, but has a black bill. A wader is possible though none really fits
the description).

p. 154—“Crows arc the only animals that seem to delight in the
[bush) fires. They arc seen to accompany the fiercest, flying about in the
smoke to catch the small reptiles, grasshoppers, etc. . . .”

pp. 181, 193—“Emu 14 —as food (The first reference describes the
bird in some detail, including the weight “before it was drawn about
100 lbs”).

p. 194—“white-crested cockatoo” and “crow”.

p. 195—“four emu legs in the chimney corner draining off the oil
they contain in order to preserve them for the legs of a work table.”

p. 196—“crow”, “break-o-days”. (Brcak-of-day has been applied to
the Pied Butcher-bird, but this species would be unlikely in the area
treated. The Western Magpie, Gymnorhina dorsalis, has a considerable
dawn penetration and would readily attract attention.)
p. 202—“emu”,
p. 205—“emu”—“crows”.

p. 252—“swans and ducks ... a magnificent eagle or falcon”.

Other references of interest to the naturalist appear on p. 89 where
a visit of James Drummond, on June 27, 1842, is recorded and on p. 115
where it is recorded that Drummond again visited the Wollastons, this
time with John Gilbert, on November 21, 1842. On p. 233 (August 1843)
are Wollaston’s comments on parts of Gould’s Birds of Australia, the
property of the Governor, John Hutt.

NEW OR INTERESTING RECORDS OF SIXTEEN BIRD SPECIES
FROM BERNIER ISLAND, DIRK HARTOG ISLAND, OR PERON
PENINSULA, SHARK BAY, WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

By IAN ABBOTT, Zoology Department, University of Western
Australia, Nedlands 6009.

1 spent four weeks in June and July 1976 doing research on Silvereyes
on Bernier I. (June 7-15), Peron Peninsula (June 17-24) and Dirk Hartog
I. (June 25-July 7). Mees (1962) and Davies and Chapman (1975) have
comprehensively listed all of the bird species known to occur at these
locations and provided details of earlier visits by ornithologists. There
is therefore no need to publish a complete list of bird species observed
during my visit. Instead, the list below contains the first or second records
of bird species for these localities, records of species that have not been
seen at some of the localities for many years, or new breeding records.

The areas covered at each locality were as follows: Bernier I., the
northern quarter of the island; Peron Peninsula, roads between Monkey
Mia and Denham, Peron Peninsula H.S. and Denham, and area around
the H.S.; Dirk Hartog I., north to Tetrodon Loop (including the Notch
Point peninsula), south to the first point S. of D.H.I. H.S. and west to
Herald Heights and the coast.

ANNOTATED LIST

White-faced Heron, Arciea novaehollandiae. One seen on W. coast of
Bernier I. (second record for island). Seven birds seen near Tetrodon Loop
on Dirk Hartog I. (new record for island).

Reef Heron, Egretta sacra. Both grey and white phases were seen on
Bernier L, although the latter phase was rare. It seems possible that
Shortridge’s record of E. alba on Bernier I. refers to this species (see
Mees, 1962:^ 101).

Mountain Duck, Tadorna tadornoides. Two seen once overhead near
the H.S. on Dirk Hartog l. (second record for island and Shark Bay area).

Black-shouldered Kite, Elanus notatus. A dead bird was found at
Peron Peninsula H.S. This is the second record for Shark Bay area.

Little Falcon, Falco longipennis. One bird was observed once at
close range with binoculars at H.S. on Dirk Hartog 1. (new record for
Shark Bay area).

Silver Gull, Lams novaehollandiae. A nest containing one egg and
one chick was found on the east coast of Bernier I. near the Wedge Rock
anchorage. This species doubtless also nests on the small islets around
this anchorage.

Rock Parrot, Neophema petrophila. Only observed (10 birds) on
Eagle Islet, about 16 km SE of Denham.

Pallid Cuckoo, Cue ulus pallidus. Two birds were seen once in the
centre of Bernier I. (W of Wedge Rock anchorage). This is the first record
for the island. One bird was seen frequently near H.S. on Dirk Hartog I.,
one was seen at Notch Point, and two were seen together near the centre
of the island. This species has not been recorded on Dirk Hartog 1. since
1921.

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike, Coracina novaehollandiae. A flock of
twelve birds was seen in centre of Dirk Hartog I. (W of H.S.) on July 3.
They were flying N. On July 5 eleven birds were seen S of the above
locality. This is the first record of this species on Dirk Hartog I. since 1917.

Viliite-fronted Chat, Ephthianura alhifrons. One male was seen in a

paddock near Tetrodon Loop (Dirk Hartog 1.) on two days. This species
has not been seen on the island since 1927.

Crimson Chat, E. tricolor. One bird was seen near H.S. on Peron
Peninsula. (Second record for peninsula).

Orange Chat, E. aurifrons. Group of 4-5 birds fed in paddocks
adjacent to H.S. on Peron Peninsula. (First record for Shark Bay area).

Red-capped Robin, Petroica goodenovii. Rare. Two brown-plumaged
birds were seen in a paddock near Tetrodon Loop, Dirk Hartog 1., and
one male was seen in the yards at the H.S. This is only the third record
for Dirk Hartog 1.

Western Warbler, G cry gone fused. One bird was mist-netted, banded
and released near H.S. on Peron Peninsula. It was not heard to sing. This
is the first record for Shark Bay area.

Silvereye, Zostcrops gouldi. Status uncertain on Bernier 1., but pro¬
bably resident. Rare. About ten birds were seen in Diplolaetia: tall Acacia
coriacea thickets near centre of island W of Wedge Rock anchorage (cf.
discussion on status by Mecs, 1962: 110).

Little Crow, Corvits bennetti. This species occurs in small numbers
(maximum number seen together was four) on Bernier I. Mees (1962: 111)
was not able to determine the species of Corvus observed by him on
the island.

I thank the following for permission to work on their property: Stuart
and Liz Rocchi, Peron Peninsula H.S., Sir Thomas Wardlc, Dirk Hartog I.
H.S. Mr. B. K. Bowen, Director of Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
kindly arranged my transport to and from Bernier I. The Western Austra¬
lian Wildlife Authority granted permits to work on Bernier and Dirk
Hartog Islands. Field expenses were met by a grant from the Australian
Research Grants Committee.

REFERENCES

DAVIES, S. J. J. F., and G. S. CHAPMAN. 1975. The status of birds
on Peron Peninsula and Dirk Hartog Island, Shark Bay, W.A. Emu,
75: 55-61.

MEES, G. F. 1962. Birds, pp. 98-112 in ‘The results of an expedition to
Bernier and Dorrc Islands, Shark Bay, Western Australia in July, 1959.’
W.A. Fish. Dept. Fauna Pull., No. 2.

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS OF BENGER SWAMP

By ERIC H. SEDGWICK, Harvey

Since the publication of “Birds of Benger Swamp”, W.Aust. Nat., 12,
1973: 147-155, I have maintained a programme of observations which
has confirmed my conclusions relating to the seasonal occurence of the
commoner water-frequenting birds. The table appearing on p. 149 was
based on over 3,000 observations. An additional 1,400 observations
provide no grounds for amendment.

LIST OF SPECIES

Predictably a number of additions have been made to the list of
species occurring in the area. These are:

Little Egret, Egretta garzetta. Sec W. Aust. Nat., 13, 1975: 62 for a
note on the occurrence of this species in late 1973. My only other record
is for December 25, 1975, when I located one bird in close proximity to
White-faced Herons and Straw-necked Ibis. Two long, fine head plumes
were noted.

Royal Spoonbill, Platalea regia. Two were identified on November
24, 1975 and one bird observed on December 4 and on December 11,
but none on later visits. At least one of these birds had a well-developed
crest.

Stubble Quail, Coturnix pectoralis. When I first flushed quail in the
Swamp, I postulated “? Brown Quail” on the basis of habitat and it was
not until December 29, 1971 that I heard calls of Stubble Quail from

a then dry portion of the Swamp and from adjacent paddocks. This is the
only quail specifically identified at the Swamp.

Spotted Crake, Porzana fluminea. My only record of this species was
made on November 8, 1976, when I was able to observe a single bird
feeding by a pool on a Typha lined track.

Spotless Crake, P. tabuensis. This species was not satisfactorily iden¬
tified in the Swamp until October, 1974, though it appears to be reason¬
ably frequent in the general area.

Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleucos. One bird was seen on several
occasions by members of a W.A. Naturalists’ Club excursion on November
9, 1975. My only other record is of one bird on the handrail of the bridge
at the approach to the Swamp, on November 24, 1975.

Marsh Sandpiper, 7'. stagnatalis. On October 13, 1976, 1 flushed a
wader from a roadside. It flew to a distance of c. 35 m, alighted on the
water, and swam freely to a grassy shallow, where it remained briefly
before wading and swimming to a similar area a few metres away. I
was able to obtain a fairly full description and identified the bird as this
species. However, on December 17, 1976, I encountered one bird with
Greenshanks and Sharp-tailed Sandpipers under ideal viewing conditions.
In size it was comparable with the Sharp-tailed Sandpipers, but in form,
stance and style it was very like the Greenshanks, though more active.
Noted: White on face, underparts, rump and adjacent areas. Legs, ? green-
grey—not black, nor definitely yellow.

Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa. On December 11, 1974, I saw
two godwits feeding in shallow water with Greenshanks. I approached
the birds to c. 80 m before both species flew and, without separating,
returned to the same place. The terminal part of the godwits’ tails appeared
black, contrasting sharply with white upper tail and rump. A fairly dis¬
tinct white band on the wing was noted. Eventually I flushed the birds
again, confirming these diagnostic features. This appears to be a slight
extension of recorded range.

Oriental Pratincole. Glareola mcildivarutn. Located on November
15, 1976 by Messrs. I. Edgar and J. Bunn, who kindly informed me of
their discovery. I proceeded to Benger and found the bird without dif¬
ficulty and confirmed the identification. However, by that time the light
was indifferent so I returned the following morning, when observing con¬
ditions were ideal, and made a detailed description.

White-winged Triller, Lalage sueurii. Cock bird encountered in Mela¬
leuca on December 11, 1975.

Yellow-rumped Thornbill, Acanlhiza chrysorrhoa. Two noted in Mela¬
leuca on December 11, 1975 and one bird in the same locality on December
31, 1976.

White-fronted Chat, Ephthianura albifrons. On December 25, 1975,
I located a pair in the Swamp. The shallower pools were dry and culti¬
vation had been commenced in a few places. The birds were present in
a cultivated area of c. 0.2 ha. Neither this nor the preceding species is
frequent in this part of the clay zone.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON CERTAIN SPECIES PREVIOUSLY

RECORDED

White-necked Heron, Ardea pacijica. None recorded in 1974, but
1975 was an invasion year and birds were present at Benger from Sep¬
tember 22, when one bird was seen, until the drying out of the Swamp.
An estimated 20 birds were scattered through the Swamp from early
October. A similar pattern occurred in 1976 when one bird was seen on
October 31, and thereafter 20 or more were present.

Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis, I have two additional records of single
birds — on December 19, 1973 and December 25, 1975; the latter was
apparently immature—a dark legged bird.

Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcincllus. One additional record—a single bird
on December 25, 1975.

White Ibis, Threskiornis molucca. The steady increase in number of
this species detailed in my earlier account has continued. In 1973, the
birds were late appearing: c. 25 were seen on November I and thereafter

no big counts were made because the birds showed less tendency to flock
than in the preceding years. In 1974, one bird was noted on September 2
and thereafter scattered individuals and groups were present until Janu¬
ary 10, 1975 when at least 35 were recorded. The species reappeared on
October 7, 1975 when four birds were present. This was another season
of scattered groups with numbers hard to assess. In 1976, three birds were
noted on September 1. Numbers started to build up in October and
towards the end of the season a tendency to flock was apparent. On
October 31, 72 birds were counted feeding in one area. 1 estimated 100
birds to be present in the Swamp. On January 6, 1976 1 counted 7 I birds
in the same area and a later recount gave a total of 80 +• Again no
immature birds have been seen.

Yellow-billed Spoonbill, Platalea flavipes. During December 1973 I
saw two birds on each of three occasions. 1974—nil. 1975—two birds on
December 25 and two and perhaps a third, on December 29. 1976—three
on December 7 and one on December 17.

Whistling Kite, Hallastur sphenurus. Usually two birds appear to be
present, but at the drying out of the Swamp the number is augmented,
and up to nine birds have been seen together. This might be explained by:
(1) Presence of young of the year. (2) The fall of the Swamp level providing
improved food supply. (3) The activity of shooters providing food for
scavengers. The presence of six birds on June 5, 1974 (when the Swamp
level was still low) may tend to discount (1).

Black-tailed Native-hen, Gallinula ventralis . My only additional records
have been for 1975 which appears to have been a moderate invasion year.
At Benger I saw seven on December 11 and four on December 18.

Coot, Fulica atm. I have a strong impression that over the past
four years the number of Coot appearing at Benger has been low. Records
of Coot in any number are restricted to October and November, mainly
the latter month. This pattern may have been due to good seasons pro¬
viding favourable conditions elsewhere.

ADDITIONS TO FAUNA OTHER THAN BIRDS

Western Water-rat, Hydromys fuliginosus . One, dead, found on a
track by member of the W.A. Naturalists’ Club excursion on November
9, 1975.

CONSERVATION

The future of Benger Swamp now appears to be assured. The Depart¬
ment of Fisheries and Wildlife is acquiring blocks in the Swamp and
now has a controlling interest. An imaginative comprehensive management
plan is being developed.

VEGETATION

With the interest now being focussed on the Swamp I have abandoned
an intention of adding to the previous notes on vegetation in the hope
that one of our specialists will provide a detailed treatment. However, the
following corrections are desirable: the Typha is T. orientalis , not angusti-
folia and the common Lemna is L. oligorrhiza.

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

The Mediterranean Snail ( Thcba pisana) on Rottnest Island. —Dr. D.
L. Serventy outlined the history of the spread of the Mediterranean snail
on Rottnest in the W.A. Naturalist (2 (2), 1949). These snails were very
much in evidence and a familiar sight as they clung to the vegetation in
clusters. A favourite resting place was the vertical flowering stems of
the introduced plant Asphodelus fistulas us which had become established
along the roads and tracks traversing the Island.

During a visit to Rottnest in June, 1975, I noticed that these snails
were no longer abundant and in fact were moderately difficult to find.
A fairly intensive search showed them to still be present but there had
been a catastrophic collapse of the original population. This suggests that
these snails have come under some form of biological control in recent
times.

—D. H. PERRY, Victoria Park.

Sighting of Black Falcon, Lancelin District. —At about 8.30 a.m. on
January 24, 1976, 3.5 km north of the Lancelin golf links on the sand
track to Wedge Island, a Black Falcon (Falco subniger) was seen. The
bird was in flight and then perched on the top of a Christmas tree (Nuyt-
sia floributula) at a distance of 40 paces. The sighting was made with
10 x 50 binoculars with the sun at the back of the observers who were
themselves in shadow and there could be very little doubt as to the
identification.

The area in which the bird was seen was typical of the district—
undulating, covered with knee-high heath with occasional stands of shrubs
rising to a height of about two metres. The whole area was rich in insect
life, with beetles, some of which were of considerable size and what
appeared to be tree crickets, predominating. From the same observation
point several Kestrels, two Little Falcons, one Spotted Harrier and one
Black-shouldered Kite were also seen.

—A. FEWSTER and M. T. MILLARD.

Mistletoe-bird feeding on Black Nightshade Berries. —On September
19, 1976 a male Mistletoe-bird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum) was observed
feeding on the berries of a Black Nightshade (Solatium nigrum) growing
within a fowl-run.

The visits were made during the morning and only the male visited
the feeding site. Each visit was heralded by the calls of the bird after its
arrival in a nearby Wandoo. The next move was to a support beam on
the run, thence to a dip in the wire and, when inside, to the nightshade.
After removing a berry the bird flew each time to a projecting twig
within the cage, appeared to masticate the fruit, dropping part thereof,
swallowing the rest and returning for a further fruit. Two or three berries
were thus consumed during the visit. Exit was then made to the outside
support beam and a direct flight out across the valley to a Marri some
200 metres away, followed. Several such visits were made during the
morning. The nightshade bore a good proportion of black, ripe fruit.

The following week seeds of what appeared to be the above fruit
were found inside, at the bottom, of a nest of the Western Silvereye
( Zosterops gouldi), apparently recently vacated. These birds had been seen
feeding on the nightshade along with the Mistletoe-bird.

—KEVIN GRIFFITHS, Parkerville.

Some Notes on the Native Poplar, Codonocarpus cotinifolius. —The
Native Poplar is a fairly common plant along the eastern fringes of the
South-West province and across the Eremean province. It is a striking
plant and easy to recognise on account of its bright green foliage, a
shade of green not common in our arid and semi-arid regions. Along the
eastern side of the South-West province this plant regenerates prolifically
after a fire, grows rapidly to a height of two to three metres and at the
age of about seven years it dies down. Regeneration is rarely seen in this
region except following a fire.

In the arid country stretching across the Eremean province to the
Western Australian border, the Native Poplar is a feature of many of
the landscapes. On a journey to Alice Springs (June, 1973) living
specimens of Native Poplar were almost non existent. A great many
dead ones were to be seen and these appeared to have been dead for

some years as many had fallen over. 1973, 1974 and 1975 have been very
good years in this region and copious rains have fallen. A friend who
recently traversed this same route to Alice Springs (October, 1975) tells
me that there has been a profuse regeneration of Native Poplar, now
from one to two metres high. It is interesting that whilst fire is the
main factor triggering regeneration in the South-West Province, it does
not perform this function in the Eremean Province where continuing
heavy falls of rain are required.

— D. H. PERRY, Victoria Park.

Some recent bird observations from south-western Australia.—The

following notes deal with some birds 1 recorded while in Western Austra¬
lia in February 1976.

Blue-billed Duck, Oxyura australis. At least three adults and five
young at Lake Seppings, Albany, on February 10.

Marsh Sandpiper, Tringa stagnatalis. One bird at Wilson’s Inlet on
February 14. It was in shallow water only a few centimetres deep and at
the northern end of a small island. The bird was viewed at a distance
of 20-30 metres. The identification was based principally on the straight
bill, light green legs and white in the forehead and foreparts of the face.
The general appearance of the bird was that of a small Greenshank. In
my field notes I have recorded the size of the bird as being ‘slightly
smaller than that of a Greenshank but hard to say positively’. The only
other waders in the vicinity were a pair of Common Sandpipers Tritiga
hypoleticos, but the Marsh Sandpiper did not associate with them at all.
I have previously seen the Marsh Sandpiper near Mildura, Victoria and
at the I.C.l. Saltfields, Adelaide, South Australia.

Southern Emu-wren, Malachurus stipiturus. One adult male and at
least two uncolourcd birds at John Forrest National Park from where
this species does not appear to have been formally recorded before. These
birds were seen on February 7 in a small patch of treeless dense heath
with a few r bare rocks, one kilometre south of the Park Kiosk and a short
distance south of the Lake. The birds’ long filamentous tails and the
light blue breast of the male rendered them unmistakable.

—LEO JOSEPH, 1 Angas Street, Kent Town, S.A.

An Asian Gull-billed Tern in Western Australia.—On October 17,
1976 I collected one of four Gull-billed Terns at the mouth of the
Lawley River in north-west Kimberley. The specimen was later identified
as Sterna nilotica affinis Horsfield of south-eastern China. Its shorter
wing, less stout bill, darker rump and tail, and eclipse plumage readily
separate it from Australian birds (adults of which retain their nuptial
plumage throughout the year). Even a juvenile Australian bird in our
collection with spotted wings has a while rump and tail.

Details of specimen (registered number A14658): exposed culmcn 38
mm, wing 282 mm, tail 104 mm, tarsus 30 mm, iris dark brown, upper
mandible black, lower mandible black with basal portion orange, feet
and legs dark brown, mouth orange. Wings and entire upperparts including
tail dull steel grey, a well-defined black stripe through the eye, head
flecked black, underparts white. Judging from the plumage stages given
in Witherby et al. (The Handbook of British Birds, vol. 5, p. 14). The
bird was over a year old and moulting into its first summer plumage.

Several subspecies of the Gull-billed Tern are currently recognized.
Australian birds (S. n. macrotarsa) are the largest with palest upperparts
(whitish grey back and white rump and tail) and have the most massive
bill. Length of wing, tail and bill in the Lawley River bird are well below
the range (310-354, 111-141 and 40.0-46.4 respectively) given for Australian
birds by Scrventy, Servcnty and Warham (The Handbook of Australian
Sea-birds, 1971, p. 206). Few measurements arc available for af finis; how¬
ever Witherby et al. state that it has a shorter wing and rather shorter

bill than the nominate race. Wing length given by Witherby et al. for
nominate nilotica (300-337 mm) is considerably greater than in the Lawley
River specimen.

It is possible that Asian Gull-billed Terns frequently visit the shel¬
tered tidal waters of Kimberley and Northern Territory during the southern
summer. Eastern Common Terns (Sterna hirtindo longipennis) and White¬
winged Black Terns (Sterna leucoptera), both summer migrants from the
Northern Hemisphere, were collected during the same biological survey
of Admiralty Gulf and its hinterland in October 1976.

— R. E. JOHNSTONE, Western Australian Museum.

Australian Pratincole at Lake Mason.—On November 12, 1975, about
1620 hours, 1 saw two Australian Pratincoles (Stiltia Isabella) on a bare
stony wash at the eastern end of the air-strip at Lake Mason, approximately
55 km north of Sandstone. One of the birds ran for a distance of about
20 m with its head turned at an angle of 90° to its body, then braked
sharply with the aid of its wings to capture a large grasshopper. The
grasshopper was struck on the ground 10-12 times before being swallowed.

The birds showed no alarm but stood quietly, occasionally bobbing
their heads. They took flight when an approach was made at 20 m or so.

The accompanying annotated sketch was made from my field notes.

—C. P. S. de REBEIRA, Balcatta.

A Survey of Breeding Seabirds on Mistaken Island, Western Australia.

On September 23, 1976 a survey of breeding seabirds was carried out
on Mistaken (or Rabbit) Island, King George Sound, W.A. The survey
occurred during a visit from 1330 to 1630 hours by Dr I. Abbott, my
wife and myself and Mr. Cliff Meredith who kindly provided the dinghy
and rowed the party the short distance involved.

The island is about 10 ha of which about 10 per cent is exposed rock
or rock with very shallow soil covering. The remaining area has good
soil depth for burrowing seabirds and is well vegetated with bushes up
to some four metres. The presence of many rabbits was apparent from
the scratchings, droppings and warrens; one was sighted.

Ninety-four burrows were searched. Little Penguins, Endyptula minor,
at various stages of breeding or preparation were found in 34 and one

nestling was very close to feather development. The remaining 60 bur-
rows were empty; about ten were smaller at the entrance and with ^
narrower tunnel than the usual penguin burrow. These burrows showed
no sign of recent occupation or use. They were located on the south-east
side and may have been burrows used previously by the Great-winged
Petrel, Pterodroma macroptera, which has been recorded breeding on the
island (Serventy, Serventy and Warham, The Handbook of Australian Sea*
Birds, 1971); the dried remains of one of these birds was found during
the visit.

The penguin burrows were spread sparsely over the whole isla n q
except in the areas of bare rock or shallow soil. They bred in cavities
among the rocks around the shoreline and one bird was brooding nest¬
lings in a thick patch of grass. No evidence was found of White-faced
Storm-Petrels. Pelagodroma marina; Basset Hull (Emu, 21, 1922: 27) had
considered uninhabited burrows belonged to this species. One Sooty
Oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus was present but gave no indication
of nesting.

Some black and white feathers were found, apparently from the work
of an avian predator. Dr Abbott forwarded them to Dr G. M. Storr
(Western Australian Museum) and they were identified as those of the
Cape Petrel D apt ion cape use.

—S. G. LANE, 65 Wood Street, Lane Cove, N.S.W,

An extension of the range of the Western Bristlebird, Dasyornis Ion*
girostris. —At the time of settlement the Western Bristlebird was known
to have been in coastal areas from Perth to Albany. Following the dcs-
truction of the population at Wilson’s Inlet (Denmark) by fire in 1914^
there were no more reports of the bird until it was rediscovered at Two'
Peoples Bay in 1945 (Serventy and Whittell, Birds of Western Australia,
1967). It was subsequently found at the Waychinicup River in 1960 (Ford
Emu, 63, 1963: 437).

While travelling through the Fitzgerald River National Park along
the old telegraph line on 26 June 1976, a Western Bristlebird was heard
singing. Subsequently five pairs were heard to sing in the area (about 1
km-) w'hich was 62 km west of East Mt. Barren and north of Woolbennup
Hill.

The area was a wide expanse of undulating open heath, 50 to 100
cm high with elongated patches of various eucalypts including Eucalyptus
tetragona and E. decipiens, two to four metres tall and some 50 to 500 m2
in area along the drainage lines. These eucalypts have a dense under-
storey of closed heath, 1 to 1.5 metres tall. The most common species in
both the open and closed heaths were Melaleuca stricta, Adenanthos
cuneata, Davicsia reversifolia, Casuarina humilis, Leptospermum sp.. An*
arthria prolifera and A . gracilis.

The exact location of two of the five pairs was obtained; in both
cases they were in the eucalypt clumps. One pair that was followed for
an hour moved between three clumps over an area of 150 m L ’. It appears
that here as well as at the Waychinicup River and Two Peoples Bay the
Western Bristlebird prefers areas of closed heath while the Field-wren
(Calamanthus fuliginosus) occupies the open heath.

Plumage details were only obtained from one pair. In general the
plumage appeared washed out compared with the other populations. The
head was grey, the upper parts were grey-brown, the belly and flanks
were grey-brown and the primaries were a very pale chestnut.

The songs heard were within the range of variation of those from
Two Peoples Bay and Waychinicup River.

There are extensive areas of suitable habitat in the Park and the
total population may well exceed that of Two Peoples Bay which is about
80 pairs (Smith. Emu, 77, 1977: in press). If this is so then the long term
survival of the Western Bristlebird appears relatively secure, given adequate
management of its habitat.

—G. T. SMITH and L. A. MOORE

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14 February 28, 1978 No. 2

THE OCCURRENCE, CULTURE AND REPRODUCTION OF
PERIPATO/DES G/LESII SPENCER (ONYCHOPHORA) ON THE
SWAN COASTAL PLAIN

By VIRGINIA VAN DER LANDE, Zoology Department, University of

Western Australia*

Peripatus near Perth was for long known only along the scarp and
the western parts of the Darling Range plateau. The type locality of Peri-
pat o ides gilesii Spencer was Armadale (Spencer, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
12, 1909: 420-422) and it has been collected as far east as Mt. Helena. In
August 1971 Professor A. R. Main made the interesting discovery of a
thriving colony on the Swan Coastal Plain, at the field station at Jandakot
operated by the Zoology Department, University of Western Australia.
This locality is 17 km west of the Darling scarp. When I came to the
University to begin a nine month study of certain aspects of nutrition in
the Onychophora, with particular reference to the salivary glands, this
colony provided a convenient source of adequate material.

So far this is the only locality on the coastal plain where Peripatus
has been found. Professor Main would be interested in additional records
from this environment. Specimens should be forwarded to him at the
Zoology Department, University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

The animals I collected, both male and female, possessed the sixteen
pairs of walking appendages characteristic of this species, and their dim¬
ensions, colour pattern and jaws corresponded with the description of
the type.

My study extended over the dry summer period when P. gilesii
disappears from its usual habitats. Animals were reasonably abundant
when collected in early October 1976, mid-October and mid-November,
one hour’s collecting yielding 20-25 specimens. None were found in the
period December to April but they were collected again after the first
heavy rains at the end of May 1977 and subsequently, despite a severe
burn which included the collecting area on March 14, 1977. At this period
only 5-6 animals per hour were obtained, some from refuge areas where
the burn had caused less damage and others up to a metre from the refuge
area, in places where the burn had exposed the sandy substrate. The main
collecting area was limited to a narrow zone in low-lying Melaleuca bush
adjacent to the reedy margins of Lake Banganup. The animals were most
frequently found between the sheets of bark which had fallen to the
ground between the trees, although they also occurred in the litter and
under pieces of wood and other debris. They were always under cover
in places where there was maximum contact for the body surface, i.e.
places which were damp and dark, but not water-logged. Clusters of up
to five individuals of assorted sizes occurred.

Healthy cultures were maintained for a period of nearly nine months
in plastic containers with close-fitting lids, which were never completely
shut, since over-damp surroundings lead to rapid death by fungal infec-

*On study leave from Department of Zoology. University of Nottingham, University Park,
Nottingham NG7 2RD, England.

tion. A constant environment room was available with a temperature of
20°C and relative humidity of 85%: the humidity in the containers was
higher, as evidenced by some condensation on the lid. Since several died
in open containers in early attempts to establish cultures, the substrate—
pieces of Melaleuca bark and litter—was moistened with distilled water
from time to time, but water-logging was avoided.

Tests on food preferences and feeding activity were carried out so

Fig. 2. — General view of area from which Peripatoides gilesii were
collected near Lake Banganup, October 1976. Note the loose bark at the
bases of the trees.

Fig. 3.—A large specimen of P. gilesii revealed by separating sheets
of Melaleuca bark. The animal has adopted a very characteristic pose.
October, 1976.

as to obtain animals with glands at a known stage of secretory activity
for the main study. At the beginning of the study, animals fed in daylight
shortly after food was presented and accepted a variety of food materials,
but over the November-May period food was only occasionally ingested
in the early morning around 2.00 a.m. and was confined to living termites.
Daylight feeding resumed mid-May.

Termites of the genus Coptotertnes*, all associated with wood, proved
to be the most acceptable diet. Both fresh and boiled pieces of other
invertebrates such as woodlice, locusts, earthworms, cockroaches, meal¬
worms and beetles, as well as frog muscle and chicken liver were also
proffered but were mostly refused. Termites from soil termitaria and ants
were consistently rejected. It was noticed that animals darkened in cap¬
tivity—the orange-red papillae on a black-grey background, which were
just apparent to the naked eye in newly collected animals, became visible
only under the dissecting microscope with good illumination.

On one occasion only (October 1976) P. gilesii commenced feeding
immediately on presentation of the abdomen of a staphylinid beetle and
the alternate cutting action of the jaws and removal of soft parts by
suction was clearly visible through the transparent exoskeleton. Living
termites were often glued down with slime ejected from the slime glands,
prior to feeding, but whether this was part of the defence or feeding
mechanism was not clear. The small termites were left as skeletonised head
capsules, the abdomen and thorax both being ingested. No soft tissues
remained in the head capsules, which were otherwise undamaged. Moult¬
ing and the expulsion of faecal material ensued soon after. Animals
survived many weeks without feeding. Cannibalism has been observed by
the author in other species but there were no instances in P. gilesii during
the present study, despite the long periods of starvation.

*Coptotermes acinacilormes (from Cottesloe and Toodyay) and C. michaelsenl (King's
Park). Identification kindly confirmed by Dr. J. Majer, Western Australian Institute of
Technology.

Fig. 4.—Eviscerated exoskeletons of termites eaten by P. gilesii.
Scale = 1.0 mm

The proportions of males and females collected could not be deter¬
mined as the animals can only be sexed by dissection. In general females
are larger than males, although male-sized females are also found. Some
dimensions of animals collected in October 1976 are tabulated below,
but a systematic survey of all collected was not performed.

(Walking) length in mm.

Wt. In

gms.

.0235

.0205

Length was very

variable

.0200

.1540

.0185

.0170

.1210

.0040

Average of April

juveniles

It might have seemed that males were twice as numerous as females
among the specimens dissected, but as serial sectioning techniques were
involved in the main study, a conscious choice of small animals was made
so as to reduce the work load.

Large females dissected at the end of 1976 contained up to 15 ova
in the two oviducts, the ova were large (approx. 1.5 x 0.9 mm) and yolky.
A progressive development of the embryos could be observed in gravid
females killed over this period. By January, the adult form was recog¬
nisable, with antennae, 16 rudimentary pairs of appendages although the
oral apparatus appeared poorly developed, consisting of a pit, with no
recognisable lips or feeding jaws.

Fig. 5. — P. gilesii. Embryo removed on February 2, 1977 showing
paired appendages, antenna and oral pit (arrowed). Fixed in Bouin.
Scale = 0.2 mm.

Fig. 6.—Embryo of P. gilesii under scanning electron microscope,
showing appendages and 1 antenna. Note the absence of claws and sensory
papillae. Scale = 0.1 mm.

On examining the cultures on April 5, 1977 after a three week
absence, a small, pale specimen 9.0 mm long was seen on a cluster of
adults. Closer examination showed that the pale background was overlaid
on the dorsal surface by a reticulated pattern of mauve pigmentation,
virtually absent from the ventral side and appendages. Pigmentation was
most intense on the large head and antennae; the skin darkened within
a week. The two eyes were a vivid chestnut brown colour. Cultures were
then examined daily and a total of 10 juveniles were counted. At first
they were associated with clusters of adults, but soon dispersed individu¬
ally to the litter whose colour they came to match remarkably closely.
The last specimen was born during the night of April 19/20, 1977. It
was interesting that a Tasmanian oviparous form, Ooperipatus insignis,
also in culture, started reproducing at the same time. No record of breed¬
ing in P. gilesii is known.

These observations were incidental to the main study and were
carried out during the tenure of a Leverhulme Fellowship, whose financial
assistance towards travel and research expenses is gratefully acknowledged.
Facilities were kindly provided in the Zoology Department, University of
Western Australia by Professor S. D. Bradshaw while the author was
on study leave from the Zoology Department, University of Nottingham.

Fig. 7.—Juvenile P. gilcsii, about three days after birth, ex culture.
The dorsal pigmentation has become more conspicuous. Note the presence
of 16 pairs of appendages, characteristic of this species. April 5, 1977.
Scale = 2.0 mm.

SOME NOTES ON THE HERPETOFAUNA OF THE WESTERN
NULLARBOR PLAIN, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By M. G. BROOKER and J. C. WOMBEY, Division of Wildlife Research.
CSIRO, P.O. Box 84, Lyneham, Canberra A.C.T. 2602
These observations were made on the western half of the large Miocene
limestone plateau known as the Nullarbor Plain. The geology (Lowry,
1970) and vegetation (Beard, 1975) have been described. Climatically this
region is desert with a non-seasonal rainfall regime. Most of the records on
frogs and reptiles were made during the course of other work in the north¬
western corner or during brief visits to the nothern fringe and to Forrest,
Twilight Cove and Madura.

Locations of places mentioned in the text and vegetation (after Beard,
1975) are shown in Fig. 1. The bulk of preserved specimens arc housed in
the Western Australian Museum, Perth (WAM) and were determined by
Dr. G. M. Storr. The remainder are lodged in the Australian National
Wildlife Collection (ANWC) Canberra.

Fig. 1.—Map of western Nullarbor Plain showing places mentioned in text
and the approximate limit of Mallee around the edges.

FROGS

Family LEPTODACTYLIDAE

Neobatrachus centralis (Parker)

Recorded in flooded clay pans south-east of Lake Brown (29°22’S,
126°07’E) in April, 1968 and September 1970 and in a flooded donga on
Kanandah (September, 1974 and 1976). This species was recorded by Bur-
bidge, et al. (1976) at Plumridge Lakes and is probably the only frog in
this area.

LIZARDS

Family GEKKONIDAE
Diplodactylus ciliaris Boulenger
One (WAM 39710) collected under tin in Myall-Bluebush 16 km
north of Naretha.

Diplodactylus maini Kluge

Specimens (2) from Brown’s Road (29°30’S, 126°40’E); habitat pre¬
dominantly Myall-Mulga woodland but specimens were collected in a
small patch of Malice.

Diplodactylus pulcher (Steindachner)

This species found in Myall-Bluebush on Kanandah and Seemore
Downs and in Hut Donga.

Diplodactylus galeatus Kluge

The authors have examined a colour photograph of a gecko collected
by Mr Mark Clements on Rawlinna Proprietors Station in 1969. The live
specimen was examined at the South Australian Museum by the late John
Mitchell and was entered in the Information Section records on June 9,
1969 as Diplodactylus galeatus (M. Tyler pers. comm.). According to Mr.
Clements, this gecko was found in firewood near the shearing shed (31°
25’S, 125°02’E). The vegetation here is Bluebush steppe with Spcargrass,
belts of Myall and occasional Black Oaks. The firewood could have been
Myall, Mulga or sleepers from the Transcontinental Railway Line but
was definitely not Malice (David Seaton, pers. comm.). Kluge (1967)
records specimens of this species from south-west Northern Territory and
central South Australia where he considers it to be a ‘relict confined to
moderate elevations’.

Diplodactylus vittatus Gray

Specimens (11) collected in Myall-Bluebush, in dongas and Spcargrass
flats. As many as six were counted on road during 16 km spot-light tran¬
sects through Myall-Bluebush habitat in September to March.

Gehyra variegata (Dumeril & Bibron)

Common in all areas where trees present including Carlisle Lakes and
Clarrie’s Donga.

Heteronotia binoei (Gray)

This species found in all habitats and with preceeding species was the
most commonly-observed gecko in this area.

Phyllodactylus marmoratus (Fitzinger)

Specimen (ANWC R1331) from under rocks in Mallee on the escarp¬
ment near Madura. Other specimens from similar habitats along coast west
from Twilight Cove.

Phyllurus milii Bory

Found in Myall-Bluebush and open grassy plains on Seemore Downs,
Kanandah and Eagle Area. Also collected in rocky escarpment near
Madura (ANWC R1380).

Family PYGOPOD1DAE

Aprasia inaurita Kluge

One specimen (ANWC R1404) found in a cat gut collected near Hut
Donga (30°25’S, 125°45’E).

Family AGAM1DAE

Amphibolurus cristatus (Gray)

Specimens (4) collected in the Mallee on the edge of the Plain on
Kanandah (30°40’S, 124°25’E).

Amphibolurus isolepis (Fischer)

Found on the Mallee-Spinifex on the edee of the Plain on Kanandah
(30°40’S, 124°25’E).

Amphibolurus minimus Loveridge
This species found in Mallee on the western edge of the Nullarbor
Plain (Badham, 1976). Specimen (ANWC RI393) collected near Goddard’s
Creek (31°02’S. 123°59’E).

Amphibolurus nullarbor Badham
According to Badham (1976), this species is endemic to the Nullarbor
Plain. Specimens were collected on Arubiddy (ANWC R1325), Eagle Area
(ANWC R1355. 1357. 1366) and Seemore Downs (ANWC R1373) in
Myall-Bluebush and Bluebush steppes.

Amphibolurus pictus Peters

Collected in sandy habitats along northern edge of the Plain (145 km
north Rawlinna, Lake Brown, Carlisle Lakes).

Amphibolnrus reticulatus (Gray)

Common in Myall-Mulga woodland on the Plain and also recorded
in transitional Myall-Mallee at Carlisle Lakes and 50 km south-west of
Naretha. Digs shallow burrow often at base of a Bluebush.

Moloch horridus Gray

Recorded 150 km north of Rawlinna and 4 km west of Kitchener.
None obseived on the Nullarbor Plain where there is no Mallee (see
Fig. 1).

Tympanocryptis lineata Peters

Common in Myall and open grass areas of Kanandah, Seemore Downs
and Eagle area.

Family VARANTDAE

Varanus gouldii (Gray)

I his species not often observed (one or two sightings per year) but
occurs in Myall-Blucbush, dongas and open grassland. Female containing
7 eggs collected on November 25, 1971.

Family SCINCIDAE

Cryptoblepharus virgatus (Garman)

Specimen (ANWC R1381) from under rock on escarpment near
Madura.

Ctenotus atlas Storr

Found in Mallee-Spinifex near edge of Plain on Kanandah (30°40’S,
124°25 E).

Ctenotus schomburgkii (Peters)

Specimens (2) from rabbit holes in Myall-Bluebush on Eagle Area
and in Mallee-Spinifex near Carlisle Lakes.

Ctenotus uber Storr

Collected in Myall-Bluebush on northern end of Eagle Area (30°15’S,
125°45’E), near Hut Donga (in cat stomach) and on Bluebush steppe 24
and 38 km south of Forrest.

Egernia multiscutata Mitchell and Behrndt

One specimen (ANWC R1365) dug out of burrow under Bluebush in
Mvall-Blucbush habitat on northern end of Eagle Area (30°10’S. 125°45’E)
and a tail attributable to this species was found in a cat shot near Hut
Donga.

Lerista frosti (Zietz)

Specimen (ANWC R1372) found under tin near house at Endeavour
(30°34’S, 125°30’E).

Lerista labialis Storr

One collected under log in Mallee-Spinifex at Carlisle Lakes.

Lerista muelleri (Fischer)

Specimens (3) from under logs in Myall-Mulga country on Kanandah
(30°40’S, 124°40’E).

Menetia greyii Gray

Common on Kanandah, Seemore Downs and Eagle Area often round
base of Myalls. Also collected Clarries Donga, Twilight Cove and Madura.

Morethia adelaidensis (Boulenger)

t This species apnears to have a wide distribution in all habitats on the
Plain with specimens from Kanandah, Seemore Downs, Eagle Area, 130 km
north of Rawlinna and 50 km south of Forrest. Also recorded 16 km west
of Nullarbor Station in S.A.

Morethia boulengeri (Ogilby)

Specimens (3) from north-western fringe near Lake Brown (20°23’S,
126°07’E).

Morethia butleri (Storr)

Specimens (2); one (ANWC R1349) collected in Spinifex south-west of
Lake Brown (29°22’S. 125°54’E) and one (ANWC R1377) under rocks on
escarpment near Madura.

Morethia obscura Storr

Observed in coastal heath on southern edge of Plain (Twilight Cove
and 14 km east of W.A. border) and specimens (ANWC R1324, R1378)
from under rocks on escarpment near Madura.

Sphenomorphus richardsonii (Gray)

Collected (7) in Hut Donga and under rocks near mills on Seemore
Downs.

Tiliqua occipitalis (Peters)

Specimen from Lignum swamp near Lake Brown.

Trachydosaurus rugosus Gray

Recorded in all habitats visited on the north-western Nullarbor Plain.

SNAKES

Family TYPHLOPIDAE

Typhlina australis (Gray)

Collected 67 km east of Kalgoorlie and at Point Culver.

Typhlina bituberculata (Peters)

Specimens (2) from Kanandah homestead and near Hut Donga. Large
numbers of Typhlina found in cat and fox stomachs collected near Hut
Donga in September, 1976 were probably this species.

Family BOIDAE

Aspidites ramsayi (Macleay)

This species recorded on Kanandah by John Bywater (pers. comm.)
in 1968. Several ‘tiger-snakes’ were killed in a donga near Kanandah
homestead when this area was first settled in the early 1960’s (Eric Swann,
pers. comm.). These were probably Aspidites ramsayi. There have been no
more recent sightings.

Family ELAPIDAE

Pseudechis australis (Gray)

Recorded on Kanandah, Seemore Downs and Eagle Area. The gut
of one collected near Lake Brown on March 20, 1973 contained
Neobatrachus sp.

Pseudonaja modesta (Gunther)

Specimen (ANWC R1337) collected by Cathy and Eric Absalom at
Seemore Downs homestead.

Pseudonaja nuchalis Gunther

Recorded 80 km north of Rawlinna by John Bywater (pers. comm.).

Rhynchelaps bertholdi (Jan)

Specimen (WAM R43587) from Myall-BIuebush on Seemore Downs.

Denisonia gouldii (Gray)

Specimens (2) from Seemore Downs and Eagle Area in Myall-
Bluebush.

DISCUSSION

One frog and 27 reptiles were recorded on the western Nullarbor
Plain proper, i.e. in habitats exclusive of Mallee communities. As most of
the collecting was done opportunistically, a number of species, could have
been overlooked. However, five agamids shown as occurring on the

Nullarbor Plain by Cogger (1975) are probably found in the Mallee on the
edge of the Plain but not on it. The distribution of Amphibolurus cristatus
(Gray) shown by Pianka (1971) circles the plain. A. pictus Peters was only
collected in Mallee and A. fordi Storr occurs only in the presence of
Triodia spp. (Cogger, 1975). Oiporiphora reginae Glauert has only been
recorded west (Storr, 1974) and east (Paul Webber pers. comm.) of the
Plain, and Storr (1974) shows locations for D. winneckci Lucas and Frost,
which are either north of or on the eastern edge of the Plain.

No Cryptoblepharus were collected on the Plain proper; Myall and
other Nullarbor trees may not provide a suitable habitat.

The absence of records on the Plain for Tiliqua occipitalis (Peters) and
Moloch horridus Gray suggests that they do not occur here.

There is some evidence from local inhabitants that the numbers of
Aspidites ramsayi have declined. Cats and foxes are efficient and significant
predators of some reptile species in this area under certain conditions. On
the Eagle Area in September, 1976, there were large numbers of cats and
foxes and very few of their staple diet—rabbits. Predator stomachs col¬
lected at this time contained up to 43 individual reptiles — mainly
Tympanocryptis lineata, Ctenotus uber and Typhlina. The season was
very dry, temperatures were low and no geckos other than Phyllurus milii
were observed. It could be predicted that geckos would become important
cat and fox food sources with the onset of warmer weather. The diet of
cats and foxes in this area is discussed in more detail by Blooker (1977).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Some of the material cited here was collected by CSIRO colleagues
J. Bywater, M. S. Jones, A. J. Estbergs and D. S. Hart. Mr. Mark Clements
of Canberra kindly allowed publication of his record of Diplodactylus
galeatus. Frank Knight (CSIRO) drew the figure. Special thanks are due
to Dr. G. M. Storr of the W.A. Museum for identifying specimens and
making useful criticisms of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

BADHAM, J. A. 1976. The Amphibolurus barbatus species-group. (Lacer-
tilia: Agamidae). A list. J. Zool., 24: 423-43.

BEARD, J. S. 1975. Vegetation Survey of Western Australia: Nullarbor
(Sheet 4) Perth. University of W.A. Press.

BROOKER, M. G. 1977. Some notes on the mammalian fauna of the
western Nullarbor Plain. W. Aust. Nat., 14: 2-15.

BURBIDGE, A. A. et. al. 1976. The wildlife of some existing and proposed
reserves in the Great Victoria and Gibson Deserts, W.A. Wild!. Res.
Bull . West. Aust., 5.

COGGER, H. G. 1975. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Sydney:
Reed.

KLUGE, A. G. 1967. Systematics, phylogeny, and zoogeography of the
lizard genus Diplodactylus Gray. (Gekkonidae). Aust. J. Zool., 15:
1007-1108.

LOWRY, D. C. 1970. Geology of the Western Australian part of the Eucla
Basin. Geol. Sur. Bull. West. Aust., 122.

PIANKA, E. R. 1971. Notes on the biology of Amphibolurus cristatus and
A. sc tit ula t us. W. Aust. Nat., 12: 36-9.

STORR, G. M. 1974. Agamid lizards of the genera Caimanops, Physig-
nathus and Diporiphora in Western Australia and Northern Territory.
Rec. West. Aust. Mus., 3: 121-46.

ADDITIONS TO THE AVIFAUNA OF THE PRINCE REGENT RIVER
NATURE RESERVE

By P. J. FULLER and A. A. BURBIDGE, W.A. Wildlife Research
Centre, P.O. Box 51, Wanncroo, W.A. 6065.

INTRODUCTION

In July 1977 we took part in a survey of the status of the Salt-water
Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in some river systems of the north-west
Kimberley. This work was carried out from the University of Sydney’s
Research Vessel The Harry Messel and the results are reported elsewhere
(Messel, et al., 1977).

During the survey we had the opportunity of observing birds which
frequent the estuarine portions of the Roc and Prince Regent Rivers and
adjacent country included in the Prince Regent River Nature Reserve.
Storr et al. (1975) list 134 species of birds recorded in this reserve during
an August 1974 survey. We are able to add a further 16 species.

We were in the Roe River on July 23-24 and the Prince Regent on
July 26 and 27, 1977.

BIRD LIST

Australian Pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus. Small parties of up to
five individuals observed on both rivers.

Brown Booby, Sula leucogaster. A single bird was observed at the
mouth of the Roc River.

Little Black Cormorant, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris. A flock of 15
was seen in the Prince Regent River well upstream.

White Egret, Egretta alba. Occasional birds were encountered in both
rivers, mainly on mud flats adjacent to mangroves.

Little Egret, Egretta garzetta. In small groups of up to four feeding
on mud flats adjacent to mangroves.

Jabiru, Xenorhynchus asiaticus. Single birds and pairs observed along
both rivers.

Grey Teal, Anas gibberifrons. A single bird seen on the bank of the
Roe River near its mouth.

Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus. A single bird seen in the upstream
estuarine section of the Roe River where it passes through a gorge.

Sooty Oystercatcher, Haematopus fuliginosus. Two birds seen on a
mud bank in a creek flowing into the Roe River.

Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola. Three seen on an exposed mud bank
in the Roe River.

Eastern Curlew, Numenius tnadagascariensis. Scattered birds sighted
throughout both river systems.

Little Greenshank, Tringa stagnatalis. Two seen on mud flats in Roe
River.

Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleucos. Occasional birds observed in
both river systems.

Red-necked Stint, Calidris ruficollis. A flock of 40 seen near the
mouth of the Roe River.

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii. Observed flying and feeding along both
rivers. The Lesser Crested Tern, S. bengalensis, outnumbered this species.

White-breasted Wood Swallow, Artamus leucorhynchus. A flock of
about 25 was seen in mangroves near the mouth of the Prince Regent River.

DISCUSSION

A total of 150 species of birds have now been recorded for the
Reserve. Doubtless further visits, especially during the wet season, will
add to this number.

Most of the additional species recorded here are birds which frequent
the margins of the Roe and Prince Regent River estuaries. This type of

habitat was not thoroughly explored by Storr et al. (1975) who worked
on foot. Because we were working from boats we were able to search
large areas of the river banks in a short time. Additional to the species
listed above we observed a number of Great-billed Heron, Arden siunatrana.
Storr et al. only recorded a single bird.

The only breeding bird we noted was the Osprey, Pandion haliaetus.
A nest on an islet at the mouth of the Prince Regent River inspected on
July 27 contained one newly hatched chick, one egg which was chipping
and another egg. A nest of the White-breasted Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus
leucogaster, in a Bombax tree just outside the Reserve near the mouth of
the Roe River contained a single almost fully fledged chick.

REFERENCES

MESSEL, H., A. A. BURBIDGE, A. G. WELLS and W. J. GREEN,
1975. The status of the Salt-water Crocodile in some river systems
of the north-west Kimberley, Western Australia. Dept. Fish. Wildl.
West. A list. Rept. No. 24. (Dept. Fish. Wildl.: Perth).

STORR, G. M., R. E. JOHNSTONE, J. DELL, and L. A. SMITH, 1975.
Birds of the Prince Regent River Reserve, north-west Kimberley,
Western Australia, hi: Miles, J. M. and A. A. Burbidge, A biological
Survey of the Prince Regent River Reserve, north-west Kimberley,
Western Australia, in August 1974. Wildl. Res. Bull. West A list.
No. 3. (Dept. Fish. Wildl.: Perth).

NOTES ON THE REPRODUCTION OF THE SHARK BAY MOUSE.

PSEUDOMYS PRAECON/S, IN CAPTIVITY

By C. H. S. WATTS and LESLEY SPENCER, Institute of Medical and

Veterinary Science, Frome Road, Adelaide, South Australia 5000

ABSTRACT

The Shark Bay Mouse, Pseudomys praeconis, is known only from Bernier Island off
Western Australia. Few specimens have over been collected. In April 1975 we received
two males and one female which subsequently produced two litters in the laboratory.
Details of the growth and development of these litters is presented as well as data
obtained on the gestation period (28-30 days) and the oestrus cycle (less than 14-16
days).

INTRODUCTION

The Shark Bay Mouse is one of the least known of Australian rodents.
Until the collection of the present specimens, it was known from only
five or six specimens few of which had been collected in the last fifty
years (Robinson et al., 1976). One early specimen was collected from Peron
Peninsula W.A. but the species is now known only from Bernier Island
in Shark Bay, W.A., an “A” class nature reserve. The mouse is a small
(30 g) nondescript rodent greatly resembling the more widespread Plains
Rat, Pseudomys australis, from which it differs in having a mottled
appearance, shorter ears, the apical rather than basal half of the tail
darkly pigmented dorsally and in characters of the skull.

Since our only female has died and it is unlikely that further specimens
will be obtained for some time, the few details that we obtained of the
breeding biology of this rare species arc presented here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two males and one female were caught on Bernier Island, W.A. on
April 21, 1975 and sent to Adelaide (Robinson et al.. 1976). All were adult.
One male died shortly after arrival. The remaining pair were housed in a
91 x 61 x 33 cm wooden and glass cage containing two nest boxes. They
were fed on mixed bird seed supplemented twice a week with diced
vegetables. Water was provided ad. lib. The room was under natural
lighting with the temperature controlled at 21±1°C.

DAYS AFTER BIRTH

Except for periods when the female was pregnant, or thought to be,
vaginal smears were taken daily, usually in the afternoon, the smears
were obtained with a small wire loop, dried in air, and stained with
methylene blue.

Young were weighed and measured soon after birth and then at
approximately weekly intervals until about 60 days old and then at 102
and 130 days old. Weights were determined to the nearest gram; length
measurements to the nearest millimetre.

RESULTS

(a) Oestrus cycle. Data obtained on the oestrus cycle are sparse.
Copulation plugs were recorded on three occasions: the first the day after
the young of the first litter were removed from the parents cage, 50
days after they were born; the second, 14 days later, and the third 16
days after the second. The female was smeared during this time and
oestrus was observed only at those times that a copulatory plug was
found. The oestrus cycle would thus appear to be less than 14-16 days.

.'■■■" WEIGHT, g

LENGTH, mm

Fig. 1.—Average growth curves of two litters of P. praeconis born in the

laboratory.

(b) Gestation length and litter size. The female had two litters, one
of four and one of three young. The first litter was born 30 days after
she was paired for the first time. The second litter was born 28 days
after a copulatory plug (the third) was observed. In neither case was
the female lactating. The gestation length would appear to be around 28
days.

(c) Growth and development of young. The average growth rates of
head and body, tail, pes and weight of each litter of young are given in
Figure 1. Litter one comprised two males and one female (plus one unsexed
stillborn) and litter two, three males. The three young of litter one all
died on day 50 after birth following a brief illness associated with an
intestinal infection. The mother died when the second litter was 22 days
old but this seems to have made little difference to their growth rates. The
proportionate lengths of head and body length and tail length changed
during the first 120 days. On day three the tail was considerably shorter
than head and body but grew rapidly (Figure 1) and on day 14 was equal
in length to the head and body. Between days 20 and 100 the tail was
longer than head and body, after this the normal adult condition of
approximately equal lengths was reached. Approximately adult lengths
of tail and pes were reached around day 60, but weight and head and
body length not until day 100. Both litters grew at approximately equal
rates.

Young were born hairless and with the ears folded down. At 11 days
the ears were free, the eyes were still closed and they were well furred
(adult colouring). The eyes opened at 15 days and by 18 days the apical
half of their tails were becoming darkly pigmented dorsally as in the
adults. Young were weaned around 30 days. At about this time the young
made a twittering noise when disturbed, similar to a call given by the
adults. For the first 16 days the young were often attached tenaciously
to the teats of the mother and were dragged around by her when she
was disturbed. They were also very difficult to remove for examination
during this period. Upper and lower incisors had not erupted on day 0 but
had done so by day three.

The female stayed with the young constantly until the 16th day
when it was observed that she had left the young to visit the male. The
male was kept in the same cage as the female and litter but did not share
the same nest box until the young were approximately four weeks old.
When the female was removed from the cage the male kept the young
warm and behaved protectively towards them.

DISCUSSION

Two recent papers (Happold, 1976; Kemper, 1976) have summarised
the available information on the growth and development of Pseudomyine
rodents. The scattered information on the breeding biology of Australian
rodents is summarised in Watts (1974) and Happold (1976).

The growth rate of P. praeconis appears to be similar to that reported
for other species of Pseudomys. The early eruption of incisors, eyes opening
around day 15, and approximately 90% adult weight reached by about
day 80 are all very ‘normal’ for Pseudomys.

The limited data obtained on P. praeconis show that it also agrees
with most other Pseudomyinae in having a relatively long gestation period
(relative to Mus and Rattus; it shares with P. desertor (Happold, 1976) the
distinction of having the shortest known gestation period in Pseudomyine
rodents), low litter size and probably also a relatively long oestrus cycle.
These characters together with the nipple clinging behaviour of the young
are emerging as Pseudomyine characteristics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank A. C. Robinson and J. F. Robinson for collecting the
animals, the Western Australian Department of Fisheries and Fauna for

issuing the necessary permits, and the Australian Biological Resources
Interim Council for financing the collecting trip.

REFERENCES

HAPPOLD, M., 1976. Reproductive Biology and Developments in the
Conilurinc Rodents (Muridae) of Australia. A list. J. Zool., 24: 19-26.
KEMPER. C. M., 1976. Growth and Development of the Australian
Murid Pseudomys novaehollandiae, A ust. J. Zool., 24: 27-37.
ROBINSON, A. C., J. F. ROBINSON, C. H. S. WATTS, and P. R.
BAVERSTOCK. 1976. The Shark Bay Mouse and other mammals
on Bernier Island. W. A ust. Nat., 13: 149-155.

WATTS, C. H. S., 1974. The Rodents of Australia: a personal view. A ust.
J. Mamm., 2: 109-116.

OBSERVATIONS ON QUANDONG TREES

By Mrs. M. B. MILLS, Merredin
Part II*

1973

On September 2 the Quandongs at No. 1 group had green
fruit on the trees. On the ground a number of fruits had fallen; these
were smaller than the green fruits and had reddened. When opened the
fruit was clean inside and free of grubs and dirt. In other trees in this
group, a little farther north, though the fruits were large and had reddened
and fallen to the ground, were not ripe. These trees showed little change
on September 7.

The Quandong tree at the Dodder plant had green fruit on September
2, and little had fallen. On September 9 the fruits were hardening and
turning yellow-green.

On September 23 a visit was made to Tantagin Rocks, about 25
miles south-east of Merredin. I was in company of Professor van Steenis
and Mrs. van Steenis, from Leiden, Holland and Mr. and Mrs. Rutherford,
science and language teachers at the Merredin High School. Of a number
of Quandong trees near the rocks l noticed in particular two large ones,
about 10 ft. high with slender main trunks. They were not compact
bushy trees but had straggling much-branched limbs, like Sandalwood,
Santalum spicatum. The leaves were slender and thin and sparse on the
branches: they were not in fruit but had apparently fruited the previous
season. Judged by the fallen nuts it appeared to have been a heavy crop.
A large number of small Quandong trees about 3 J in. high were under
the trees. When some were dug up it was seen that all had germinated
from seeds and had a long almost vertical tap root, unattached to anv
plant or grasses. There was a heavy layer of dead moist leaves on soft
reddish soil. The kernels of the nuts, when tasted raw, had a pleasant
slightly sweetish taste.

At No. 1 group on September 29 the fruit was ripening. There were
some very large fruits on one tree but in the other trees the fruit was
still in the green stages. On October 8 the fruit in this group had ripened
very quickly and appeared to be at the peak. However two small trees
still had green fruit on them.

On the same day, October 8, I travelled about three miles beyond the
Ouandong tree at the Dodder plant and came on a laree number of
Ouandonas in virgin country on the Old York Road. On the north
side of the road, in heavv Eucalyptus country, were a fair number of
large Quandong trees bearing green fruit. The land on the south side of
the road was drier and among the Eucalyptus and A curia were a great
number, well over a hundred, of mainly young Quandongs resembling

‘Continued from p. 17

an orchard. Nearly all the trees were in green fruit and fruiting was
much heavier than on the trees north of the road.

On October 14 the trees in No. 1 group were loaded with ripe
fruit and a large quantity was collected for cooking purposes. The fruits
were very large and had a soft rather tart taste.

The Quandong tree at the Dodder plant still had green fruit on it
on October 15.

By October 20 the small amount of remaining fruit at the No. 1 group
was nearly all ripe, though some green fruits were still present. It had
been a long wet winter and spring which had produced rain nearly every
day as well as cold, cloudy conditions. This may be the reason why green
fruit still persisted.

On October 28 the Quandong at the Dodder plant where the fruit
had been late ripening, was now in its ripe stage. The fruits were large,
dark red, smooth-skinned, nice-tasting, clean and fleshy. Other trees in
the vicinity had ripening fruits. On November 5 the Quandong at the
Dodder plant had ripened and there was now no fruit on the tree.
Neighbouring trees had red but not quite ripe fruits.

I received a spray of Quandong leaves and ripe fruits from Dr. M.
S. Buttrose, of the CSIRO Division of Horticultural Research, Adelaide.
This fruit was very similar in colour and form to the fruit on the Quandong
at the Dodder plant. A sample of Quandong jam received from Dr. and
Mrs. Buttrose appeared to have a distinctly different flavour from our
fruit and was, perhaps, of a lighter colour.

1 have noted yellow-fruited Quandongs where the fruits though ripe
do not become the normal bright red. Such trees occur at Mcrrcdin, Nokan-
ing and at South Booran. Some yellow fruit picked at South Moorine Rock
by a friend was fleshy and nice tasting and when cooked had the same
flavour as the red Quandongs. Dr. Buttrose gave me the reason why
yellow Quandongs do not redden as do other Quandongs: “These are
really a variety which apparently cannot manufacture the red anthocyanin
pigments of the normal Quandong, and as far as I have been able to
learn they differ only in this respect. The pale Quandongs are labelled
as ‘Moonlight’.”

On November 14 the trees at No. 1 group had finished fruiting for
the season, though one or two red fruits and a few green ones still
remained on some trees. The trees here and a little north were in blossom,
some heavily. Some of the trees had borne fruit heavily this season. On
November 15 blossom was setting on the Quandong at the Dodder plant
and other trees in the vicinity.

On November 15 1 re-visited the virgin area on the Old York Road.
Most of the Quandongs here had fallen, ripe fruit. There had been no
heavy fruiting here and all trees examined were showing blossoms. The
flavour of the fruit on these trees was somewhat salty and perhaps a
little bitter.

On Novenibcr 18, on the Nungarin Road some five miles north of
Nokaning, I picked fruit from two Quandong trees. The fruits were mainly
bright red, large and tight skinned, but some were a definite yellow of
a dull lemon colour. They appeared to be ripe and after being placed in
the refrigerator overnight they turned an orange-red.

On December 10 1 examined Quandong trees in Mr. and Mrs.
Rutherford’s garden. Two mature trees were heavily in blossom. Of the
little Quandong trees attached to the long rooting system mentioned earlier
(Part I, pp. 15-16), the one at the beginning of the root system is thriving,
growing up from the small root upright into a healthy little tree. Further
along the root system a small number of little trees had withered owing
to Mr. Rutherford having accidentally cut through the root system with a
spade while loosening the earth around other trees. The three trees which
were transplanted from this root system in June had all died.

December 23: All Quandong trees through the area 1 have travelled
are heavily in blossom; their scent is strong upon the breeze.

1974

On January 23 the Quandong trees opposite Miss Teasdale’s, on the
Golf Road, Merredin, have tiny fruit setting on—one, two, or a small
number, up to, on one spikelet, nine small fruits. The profusion of blos¬
som, some still remaining but dry and falling away, did not all become
fruit-bearing. The greater part blew away in the wind or was gathered
by insects.

On January 28 few fruits seemed to be setting on the trees in No. 1
group. I dug around the little trees which had grown in numbers under
two Quandong trees to see if they were from seed or from a root system;
they were from seeds. The greater number of little trees, of about five
or six inches in height, were dead or were very brown and withered. A
long hot January with no cool changes and unusual cloudless skies had
done havoc to them. Usually in January there arc cool changes, often
cloudy, with thunderstorms and rain, sometimes heavy.

On January 27 I went to a farm about seven miles south-west of
Merredin to see a patch of several acres of uncleared land which had
been left in its natural state there. The trees were mainly big old Eucalyptus
with surrounding belts of mallee, some native pines and “camel box",
Alyxia buxifolia. In this area very many Sandalwood and Quandong trees
were growing very close together, about 2-3 ft. apart. Quite a number of
both species had mistletoe growing on them, causing the trees to become
straggly, showing dead branches. The mistletoe on the Sandalwood is very
similar to the mistletoe growing on Quandong trees but lacks the vivid
red colouring, the flowers being an orange-red colour. The Sandalwood
mistletoe had, as well as flowers, small pale yellow oval fruits as well as
smaller green fruits.

Next day, January 28, I examined the No. 1 group Quandongs. One
tree in this group had sticky mistletoe seeds identical with those on the
Sandalwood mistletoe.

On February 8 I examined a fine group of Quandongs on a reserve
about five miles north-cast of Merredin, at Gnamma rockhole. There
were a large number of young trees in an area of about one acre, close
together, the trees being about a few yards apart and about 5-6 ft. in
height. They were very healthy looking and some had borne heavy crops
of fruit, which now lay about the ground. These little trees were slightly
different in leaves and colouring. The leaves were small and slender and
had a curling tendency. Their colour, compared with another group of
Quandongs, was paler, a yellow-green. The fruit on the ground was a deep,
dark red, as yet unspoiled by rain. Some were placed in a cup of water
and it was surprising how soon the fruit revived from its dehydrated state
and became soft and fleshy, like a ripe Quandong still on the tree in its
season—October or November. However the skin was darker from lying
drying out in the sun. The water in the cup took on a rich brown-red
colour also, and was not unpleasant to the taste.

In the No. 1 group no blossoms remained on May 20, and apart
from a few fruits setting on the trees they were seemingly quite bare. All
the previous heavy blossom had dropped off or been blown away by
strong winds. The Quandong trees on the north side here had no fruit
on them at all. One particular tree interested me. It seems rather barren
as it has not fruited for a few years and has none this season. Yet it
looks healthy and is bushy, tall and well-grown.

At the Quandong by the Dodder plant the fruit has set on very well;
the tree is loaded with quite large, shining yellow-green fruits.

Last month, during April 3, 4 and 5, flooding rains had been exper¬
ienced at Merredin and surrounding districts. In some localities up to
four and five inches of rain were recorded and the Quandongs at Merredin
received this drenching after a terrifically hot summer, now followed by
further good rains and very pleasant sunny weather.

On July 14 I searched at No. 1 group for young trees and found
five poor looking examples about six inches high. On turning over the

soil, red and rich in a very wet place under a number of young trees, about
four inches down I found a large number of germinating seeds. I counted
73. Some were lying above ground, in very moist conditions, lying in a
covering of water, and all were attached to nuts. Other seedlings were
found, 27 in all, unattached to nuts. 1 took one seedling and grew it in
a glass jar with a mixture of leaves and soil. It flourished on a window
sill for 15 months until a mischievous cat knocked it over.

On August 14 the Quandong at the Dodder plant was loaded with
fruit, most of it half red and of a good size. Curiously, only one side of
the tree, that nearest to the roadway, was bearing. On the far side, nearest
to the heavy scrub, there were only two fruits. 1 suspect that the Dodder
vine, which had twined all over the branches of the Quandong tree, may
have been the cause of this.

August 29: Quandong trees that arc in fruit in the district are mainly
showing red patches on the fruit. A stand of trees on the York Road,
near Chapman’s farm where water flows across the road and appears,
perhaps to carry superphosphate from the paddocks with it, are heavily
fruiting, with large fruits with red patches on them.

October 8: Generally it seems to me that fruit is much scarcer this
year than last season, even though there was so much heavy blossoming
of the trees. The fruit is ripening earlier and very much larger than
usual. All the fruit on the Quandong at the Dodder plant has ripened and
fallen; this was the tree which was a late ripcner last season.

October 26: All the fruit has apparently ripened and fallen from the
trees for this season. All the trees examined are coming into blossom,
including those that had just borne large amounts of fruit. The early
season and short fruiting may have been the result of the heavy rains
in May. There was no late fruiting.

1975

February 20: The Quandong tree at the Dodder plant is only just
beginning to set fruit. The same is the case with the trees of the No. 1
group, where fruit appears to be sparse.

When No. 1 group was examined again on May 9 it was found that
actually a fair amount of fruit had set, despite the earlier scanty blossoms.
The fruit w' as . of good size. There were some small trees from a few
inches to six inches high at the bases of some of the trees.

On May 14 I examined Quandong trees on the Nungarin Road,
about five miles north of Nokaning. A group of 128 trees examined in
the winter of 1973 were seen to be well grown and healthy. Other trees
here examined for fruit showed the majority were not bearing, although
they looked healthy; only five trees in 20 mature ones were well covered
with young well-grown fruit. Quandong trees on the York Road also
showed the majority to be without fruit. Of 24 well-grown trees examined
only four were bearing some fruit, but only sparsely.

On August 4 and 9 on Chandler and York Roads I examined 258
Quandong trees. Of these only four were fully loaded with fruit, seven
had one or two fruits on each and one tree had a small amount of fruit.

On September 23 I examined the No. 1 group. Of 64 trees in the
group 24 were well covered with fruit. Out of this number six trees were
fruiting heavily and several others had only one or two fruits on each.
Individual trees appear to bear some fruit each year, a light crop followed
by a heavy crop and so on. Other trees do not appear to bear fruit at all.
Rainfall has been light but constant, with a pleasant, mild spring. There
were not many frosts and the weather was generally calm.

November 11: Quandong trees on the Golf Road, Merredin, flowering
profusely, with a fragrant scent. November 18: Quandongs in blossom on
the York Road.

December 11: The Quandong trees at No. 1 group are nearly all in
blossom, some heavily. A tree which 1 had referred to as “barren” is now
heavily in blossom, for the first time for some years.

On December 12 1 examined the Dodder plant Quandong and found
it to be heavily in blossom. However the Dodder vine, which is laden
with large dull green berries, is taking its toll of the tree. Its crown is
now almost bare of leaves where the Dodder is entwining it; only the
outer branches have leaves and blossoms.

A culinary note: Quandong fruit is very nice to cat, and many delicious
and interesting recipes may be made from them. Quandong pies, with
cream added, are delicious. Quandong puree, jam, preserves and chutney
have all been tried and found very good. Recently Dr. Buttrose sent me
a jar of dried Quandongs in sweet sherry, to be eaten direct or sweetened
with sugar and cream added. They were delicious. The kernel from the
Quandong nut is also nice to eat and may be roasted lightly in cooking oil
and salt sprinkled over them.

BIRDS OBSERVED ON A VISIT TO BERNIER ISLAND
IN SEPTEMBER 1977

By MAX HOWARD, Carnarvon.

INTRODUCTION

Bernier Island is the northern-most island in the Shark Bay group of
islands and together with Dorre Island it forms an “A” Class reserve,
number 24869 for the conservation of flora and fauna. It lies about 30 miles
west of Carnarvon.

On September 20, 1977, Michael and Irene Morcombe and myself
departed Carnarvon on the Nor-West Whaling boat Boullanger, to attempt
to photograph if possible the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and the White¬
breasted Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), which are abundant on the
island. We arrived on the island at 1700 hours the same day, and camp
was set up in the bay just north of Redcliff Point. We departed the island
at 0730 hours on September 24.

The area searched from the campsite was about 2 miles north, 3
miles south and half mile west.

LIST OF BIRDS OBSERVED

Silver Gull, Larus novaehollandiae. The most common gull, found in
large numbers around the shore line and offshore rocks.

Pacific Gull, Larus pacijicus. Very common around shore line and
offshore rocks. Very few immature birds sighted.

Pied Oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus. Appeared to be the more
common of the oystercatchcrs. One nest located with one egg on the beach
near campsite.

Sooty Oystercatcher, Haematopus fuliginosus. Several birds sighted on
most days south of Redcliff Pt.

Osprey, Pandion haliaetus. Common on parts of the island visited,
three pairs sighted within three miles of campsite. One pair attempted nest
building and another nest located with two young about one month old.

White-breasted Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster. One nest containing
two large young about two months old, located about half mile south of
Redcliff Point.

Welcome Swallow, Hirundo neoxena. Very common on parts of island
visited.

Australian Pipit, Anthus novaeseelandiae. Another common bird
observed mainly on the beach at our campsite, and in the thicker scrub.

Little Falcon, Falco longipennis. One bird only observed flying south
along cliff face on the first day of our visit. However it was heard calling
on all subsequent days, and it was observed flying away from cliff face,
just north of our campsite.

Pied Cormorant, Phalacrocorax varius. The only cormorant sighted
during our stay. It appears to be very common on the rocks, and off-shore
islands.

Turnstone, Arenaria interpret. The most common wader observed on
all days on the island, observed on both rocky and sandy coastline.

Variegated Wren, Malurus lamberti. Appears to be common on all
parts of the island visited. A number of brightly coloured males were
observed.

Singing Honeyeatcr, Meliphaga virescens. Several birds sighted during
our stay, and appears to be a common species.

Reef Heron, Egretta sacra. One bird sighted (grey phrase) on off¬
shore island just south of Rcdcliff Point.

Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus. One bird sighted on foreshore south
of Redcliff Point.

Grey Plover. Pluvialis squatarola. One bird sighted on the foreshore
south of Redcliff Point.

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii. Several birds sighted flying a short distance
out to sea from our camp on most days.

Red-capped Dotterel, Charadrius ruficapillus. Appeared to be a
common bird on the foreshore, several parties of birds observed on all
days.

Field Wren, Calamanthus fuliginosus. This bird was observed on all
days, heard calling on numerous occasions and would appear to be a
common species, although it keeps well hidden in the small scrub.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to extend my thanks to Mr. Dave Dempsey and the crew of the
Boullanger, without whose help the trip would have been impossible.
The Fisheries and Wildlife Authority, Perth, gave us permission to visit
the island.

REFERENCE

MEES, G. F. Birds of Bernier and Dorre Island, 1962, Fauna Bulletin

No. 2 Fisheries and Fauna Department.

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

Chestnut-breasted Finch, Lonchura castaneothorax, at Osborne Park.—
During the last few years the Chestnut-breasted Finch has been sighted at
Osborne Park, usually feeding on the seeds of Winter Grass (Poa annua)
growing in a patch of cultivated tomatoes near the edge of a sedge
covered swamp. The garden is irrigated summer and winter.

In August 1973 I saw six birds, and again in September 1975 when
I counted 40 individuals, which remained in the area until the beginning
of December. In July 1976, a similar sized flock was seen in my area.

On July 3, 1977, 18 birds were counted feeding in a fairly tight group
on green Winter Grass seeds growing thick amongst the tomato plants.
When these finches were flushed off the ground they flew short distances
before landing on the tomato stakes, and then one by one would alight
on the ground to continue feeding. An adult male specimen with small
gonads was collected on this day, now in the Western Australian Museum.
(Registered number A15099).

On July 7, 1977, only seven birds were counted. As I watched this
small group feeding, I noticed a iarge male feral cat stalking the finches
only a metre or two from the unwary birds. This species has recently been
recorded at Herdsman’s Lake, about 2 km south of my locality.

Presumably these birds comprise a breeding flock of escapees from
local aviaries.

—NICHOLAS KOLICH1S, Osborne Park.

Rufous Tree-Creeper, Climacteris rufa, on the Swan Coastal Plain.—*
Seldom has the Rufous Tree-Creeper been recorded from the Swan Coastal
Plain, and there are no records since those of W. B. Alaxander (Emu, 20:
149; 47: 282) near Perth between 1912 and 1920. The only specimens
were collected at Wanneroo on August 1907 and now in the Western
Australian Museum. Serventy (Emu, 47: 282) believed that it had quite
disappeared from the coastal plain, though still resident in the Darling
Range (plentiful in some parts, personal observation). I was surprised to
observe two pairs in Tuart-Jarrah Woodland with Banksia at Balcatta, a
Perth suburb. The precise locality was between Delawncy and Rickman
Streets on the eastern side of Takari Primary School. The birds were
seen entering hollows in the Tuarts. Nesting was not established. They
were sighted several times between October 23 and December 10, 1974.

—NICHOLAS KOLICH1S, Osborne Park.

Rockhopper Penguin, Eudyptes chrysocomc, at Two People’s Bay.—
During a recent holiday, a visit was made to the Two People’s Bay
Nature Reserve on August 30, 1977. In the small cove east of the picnic
area Dr. J. Hitchcock and I identified an immature Rockhopper Penguin
which had been discovered by his sons. The bird was slowly swimming
close inshore, rolling on its side and diving occasionally. It appeared to
be in good condition except for an injured eye. The ranger at Two People’s
Bay, Mr. R. Sokolowski was notified of the penguin and he kindly con¬
firmed the identification. Reference to Handbook of Australian Seabirds
(D. Serventy, et al.) indicated that this bird was immature as it had pale,
slightly protruding eyebrow stripes not reaching the base of the beak and
lacked the adult filamentous crests. The bill was dull brown and the feet
flesh coloured with black soles. The black throat and chin further suggest
that this bird was probably between one and two years old.

—G. F. U. BAKER, Furnissdale.

Breeding after rain by the Australian Raven.—In “The Comparative
Ecology of Australian Corvids. Ill Breeding Seasons” (CSIRO Wildl. Res.,
1973; 18: 67-90) Rowley et al. could find no records of the Australian
Raven (Corvus coronoides) breeding in autumn or after rain.

On May 16 1974, I recorded a nest of C. coronoides 16 metres high
in a Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) at Manmanning, approxi¬
mately 150 km north-cast of Perth in the wheat belt of Western Australia.
The bird was incubating five eggs and subsequently two fledglings left the
nest. By ageing the nestlings from observations of the nest and allowing an
incubation period of 20 days, the period of laying for the first egg would
have been between April 25 and 30.

The long dry summer characteristic of the Western Australian wheat
belt ended early in 1974 when the first substantial rain fell on March 4
(33 mm). A total of 115 mm of rain fell from March 4 to April 23. At
the same time maximum temperatures remained mild but normal for that
time of year, i.e. the mean maximum for April was 20.2°C. Successful
breeding was also noted in two other species in the same area: the Magpie
Lark (Grallina cyanoleuca) and the White-browed Babbler (Pomatostomus
superciliosus).

This is the first published breeding record for C. coronoides at this
time of year, when day length is decreasing. Rowley ( loc. cit.) recorded
nest building by C. coronoides near Canberra in May 1964 but the nest
was not laid in. He cited also a pers. comm, record of a local egg col¬
lector’s knowledge of autumn nesting.

Similar behaviour (autumn breeding after rain) is well known for
C. bennetti in Central Australia and was recorded for C. mellori in central
New South Wales in 1969 following a drought Rowley (loc. cit.). It is
also recorded for both C. bennetti and C. orru for Western Australia by
Carnaby (IV.A. Nat., 4 (7), 1954) and Robinson (IV.A. Nat., 4 (8), 1955).

—GRAEME CHAPMAN, P.O. Box 10, Glen Forrest, W.A. 6071.

Breeding stations of the Fairy Tern between Dongara and Lancelin,
Western Australia. —During my avifaunal survey of the coastal strip and
islands between Dongara and Lancelin from 1957 to 1964, no breeding
colony of the Fairy ’l ern Sterna nereis was discovered but it was reported
that Mr. 1. Edgar had previously found the species nesting on the sandy
point opposite Edward island (Ford, Emu, 1965, 64: 184). Two breeding
localities have since been discovered.

On January 20, 1971, 1 found a colony of about 200 adults on the
high part of the eastern beach of Boullanger Island, and made the fol¬
lowing breeding census: nests with one egg, 29; nests with two eggs, 7;
nests with one egg and one chick, 3; nests with one chick, 15; and nests
with two chicks, 8. On December 16, 1964, Dr. E. Lindgren found about
150 pairs with eggs and small downy chicks on the western beach of
Whitlock Island.

Some interesting additional records to the birds of Boullanger Island
made on January 20, 1971 were: Grey Plover, Pluvialis sqiuitorola, 18;
Large Sand Dotterel, Charadrius leschenaultii, 5; Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa
limosa , 3; Grey-tailed Tattler, Tringa brevipes, one; Common Sandpiper,
Tringa hypoleuca, one; Sanderling, Calidris alba, 30; Red-necked Stint,
Calidris ruficollis, 11; and Turnstone, Arenaria inter pres, 12.

—JULIAN FORD, Western Australian Institute of Technology.

Spotted Crake and Variegated Wren at Pelican Point. —On November
25, 1975 several Naturalists’ Club members saw a single Spotted Crake
(Porzana fluminea) feeding along the edge of the sedge surrounding the
lagoon at Pelican Point on the Swan River estuary, Perth. This was the
first time the Spotted Crake had been observed at the Point. The bird
was watched for several minutes and appeared to be a mottled brown
immature, lacking the distinctive white spots of the adult, however the
characteristic unbarred extensive white under-tail was noted. The tail
was flicked continually as the bird moved.

Throughout the winter of 1975 a party of fairy wrens (Malurus)
were seen on several occasions at the Point, usually feeding in the
Melaleuca bushes. The birds, numbering up to six, were in non-breeding
plumage and were presumed to be Splendid Wrens (Malurus splendens).
On October 7, 1975 it was noted that there was still no male in breeding
plumage amongst the party. However, when they were next seen, on
January 3, 1976, a male in the partially moulted plumage of the chestnut-
shouldered group of fairy wrens was present. This bird had a dark grey-
brown bill, glossy black lores, metallic blue cheek and ear-coverts, and
a long, bright chestnut bar on each shoulder. The buff breast was speckled
with dark patches.

Considering the habitat Dr. D. L. Serventy believed these to have
been the Variegated (or Purple-backed) Wren (Malurus assimilis) rather
than either the similar Red-winged (M. elegans) or Blue-breasted Wrens
(M. pulcherrimus). This would be at the extreme southern end of the
species’ coastal range. It has not previously been recorded at Pelican
Point. Evidence of breeding was seen on January 9, when one bird in
non-breeding plumage solicited and received food from another. The male
had progressed further into eclipse plumage by this date and was not
noticed when the party was next watched on February 8, 1976.

Other interesting sightings at the Point may be mentioned:

September 5, 1975: Nine terns, probably Whiskered Terns (Chlidonias
hybrida),

September 22, 1975: One Grey-tailed Tattler (Tringa brevipes) in
breeding plumage.

December 16, 1975: One small tern, possibly a Common Tern (Sterna
hirundo).

February 17, 1976: Rick Curtis saw a Brown Goshawk (Accipiter
fasciatus) catch and devour a Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis).

March 24, 1976: Two Eastern Golden Plovers (Pluvialis dominica).

—BRUCE CORFE, Cairns.

Brown Bittern in the Kimberley, Western Australia.—Condon (Check¬
list of the Birds of Australia, 1975) gives the distribution of the Brown
Bittern, Botaurus poiciloptilus, as confined to southern Australia. There
are no records of this species from the Northern Territory (Storr, Birds of
the Northern Territory, Spec. Pubis. West. Aust. Mus., 1977 (7)), in
Queensland it is confined to the wet south-eastern corner (Storr, List of
Queensland Birds, Spec. Pubis. West. Aust. Mus., 1973 (5)), and in south¬
ern western Australia it is known from as far north as Moora, though
the type locality of the subspecies westralensis Mathews was purported
to be Shark Bay (Mathews, Novit. Zool., 1912: 18: 235). The first specimen
(WAM A12495) from the Kimberley Division, Western Australia, was
collected by W. H. Butler on October 22, 1971 at Argyle Lagoon, Ord
River. It is a female with an unconvoluted oviduct, so may have been
a young bird, but the skull is fully pneumatised.

Specimens in the Western Australian Museum indicate that males
average larger in wing and bill measurements than females (Table l).
Amadon and Woolfenden (Am. Mus. Novit., 1952, 1564) had little material
from Western Australia when they concluded that westralensis was a
synonym of poiciloptilus. The mensural data in Table 1 support their con¬
clusion that Western Australian birds are not smaller than those in south¬
eastern Australia.

TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (mm) OF BOTAURUS POECILOPTILUS FROM
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

WAM. Reg.

Sex

Wing

Bill

Tarsus

Locality

A759

347

100

—

A10959

338

102

North Dandalup

A4978

324

102

Muchea

A3677

326

—

A10036

280

Herdsman Lake

A4505

303

South Belmont

A4494

302

South Belmont

8450

300

102

Pinjarra

A3643

295

100

Swanbourne

A12495

306

Argyle Lagoon

—JULIAN FORD, Western Australian Institute of Technology.

Two new occurrences of the Mediterranean Snail, Theba pisana
(Muller), in Western Australia.—Travellers along Eyre Highway from the
days before the present sealed road would not readily forget the old
roadhouse at Madura, located at the foot of the Hampton Escarpment
some 2 km west of the present facility. In the course of a visit to the
now abandoned site in October 1976, I found a thriving population of the
introduced Mediterranean Snail, Theba pisana (Muller) on bushes growing
around the ruin and on the side of the escarpment nearby. As usual
when gathered in the hand, the animals quickly emerged from the shells and
became active. All shells seen were pallid, with the characteristic brown
spiral markings either weak or absent.

The native snails Bothriembryon barretti Iredale, Sinumelon nullar -
boricum (Tate) and Angasella oligopleura (Tate) are common here and
elsewhere along the Hampton Escarpment. There is as yet no evidence of
any displacement of native species by T. pisana but the site would repay
future checking on this aspect. In fine weather all three native species
withdraw into crevices beneath rocks; B. barretti and S. nullarboricum
may also burrow' into soil under vegetation. When collected, the native
species tend to be much less active than T. pisana. Thus aestivation
behaviour of the two groups of snails contrasts strongly. Whether the
introduced species will be able to survive the droughts that affect the
district from time to time remains to be seen.

In September 1976, living specimens of T. pisana w r crc found by Mr.
T. Hargreaves near his residence in Durlacher Street, Denham, Shark
Bay. They are suspected by him to have been brought there on a vehicle

that had previously been left standing for several weeks at a snail-infested
locality at Geraldton. This is the first authenticated record of T. pisana
from Shark Bay, though there has been a previous, unsubstantiated report
of snails in another part of the townsite. Whether the species will become
established there permanently remains to be seen.

Mr. Hargreaves’ suggestion on the source of these snails is likely to
be correct. Once while changing a car wheel near Geraldton, I left some
vehicle fittings on the ground by the road for about 10 minutes. On
picking them up, several living T. pisana were found attached to or crawling
on the fittings and could easily have been transported away.

T. pisana now has a very wide distribution in south-western Australia
and it is doubtful if there is a single coastal settlement or fishing spot
between Kalbarri and Esperance without its population of this species.
The motor vehicle has probably been the decisive factor in this range
expansion. The Madura and Shark Bay records are the most peripheral
to date for the species in Western Australia. The climates of the two
localities are not dissimilar; Madura rainfall averages 247 mm and Denham
236 mm per annum, the six wettest months being March to August (winter)
in both cases. Soils in both places arc strongly calcareous.

The specimens are now in the collection of the Western Australian
Museum.

—G. W. KENDRICK, Western Australian Museum.

The Little Shearwater <m St. Alouarn Island, VV.A.—The Little Shear¬
water, Puffinus assimilis, was first recorded on St. Alouarn Island, off
Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, by Dr Mary Gillham (IV. Aust. Nat.,
9 (2), 1963; 29-46) on November 4, 1959. She found “one living specimen”
and “several fresh carcases”, but apparently checked few burrows. Dr
Gillham also reported Little Penguins, Eudyptula minor, breeding, and
smaller burrows which she stated “almost certainly belonged” to White¬
faced Storm-petrels, Pelagodroma marina.

On September 17, 1976, with J. A. K. Lane, G. B. Pearson and my
wife, 1 visited the island from 0700 to 0900 hours. We found Little Pen¬
guins breeding close to the landing place but no extensive search was
made for these birds as the weather was expected to deteriorate. However,
of those found, four were each brooding two eggs, one had two very small
chicks, and one was in a burrow too deep to determine the contents.

The weather prediction was not good and wc anticipated that our
stay on the island would be a brief one. Accordingly our efforts were
directed mainly towards a search for breeding sea-birds other than pen¬
guins. Medium-sized burrows, smaller than those of Wedge-tailed Shear¬
waters, P. pacijicus, but larger than those of storm-petrels, were spread
rather sparingly over the island in a number of places. About 150 were
examined. One was empty and the other contained a King’s Skink Egernia
prints, sand scratching and occasionally small brown or white feathers
were seen in or near the burrows. Some wings which were thought initially
to belong to White-faced Storm-Petrels were found, but the heads and
legs were missing. Eventually an almost-complete carcase of a Little
Shearwater was located, and the other wings matched. (The wing of
P. marina may be only 15-20 mm shorter than that of P. assimilis; with
a cursory examination it is otherwise similar). Finally, two Little Shear¬
waters were captured together in a burrow but no egg or chick was present.
Both birds were banded and returned to the burrow.

Two other burrows which appeared to be those of storm-petrels were
examined. One was empty and the other contained a King’s Skink, Egernia
kingii. No other evidence of storm-petrels was found during the visit.

Eight Sooty Oystercatchers, Uacmatopus fuliginosus, and two Peregrine
Falcons, Falco peregrinns, were also seen during the visit. The falcons
undoubtedly would be responsible for predation of the petrels.

The anticipated rising winds caused a hasty departure from the island.

I am very grateful to Jim Lane and Grant Pearson who made this
visit possible.

—S. G. LANE, 65 Wood Street, Lane Cove, N!S.W.

Another observation of the Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba) in Western
Australia. —On November 18, 1977 while in Broome, south-west Kim¬
berley, we observed from a distance of 15 metres an unfamiliar black-and-
white bird on the roof of a low building. The bird ran down the roof
to the gutter which was half full of water. Here it momentarily stopped
and wagged its long tail with a jerky up-and-down motion. It then walked
briskly and ran along the edge of the roof with a backward-and-forward
motion of the head and a constant up-and-down movement of the tail.
From the roof it flew down to a recently watered lawn to within 10-12
metres of us and continued to jerk the tail and head. It was last seen
when it flew across the garden on to a broad branch of a large Albizui •
Our attention was first attracted to the bird, because it is so unusual to
see Australian passerines feeding on roofs.

Although we observed the bird for 30-60 seconds it was difficult to
get a full description of its colour pattern. It was similar in size to a
Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leitcophrys) and had a long tail and long legs;
the face, throat and upper wing were white; the head, back and tail were
uniform greyish black, and the breast was blackish.

Apart from the white face, our description also fits Motacilla aguimp
of Africa; however this species is sedentary, and therefore unlikely to
reach Australia. On the other hand the eastern races of M. alba arc migra¬
tory, spending the northern winter in northern India, Burma, southern
China, south-east Asia, Borneo and the Philippines.

This is the second Pied Wagtail sighting in Australia. Storr (1975,
W. Aust. Nat., 13: 64-65) reported a bird in the Katanning district (south¬
west of Western Australia). It is probable that both Western Australian
sightings were of an Asian subspecies of M. alba.

—R. E. JOHNSTONE and L. A. SMITH, W.A. Museum.

The Red-winged Parrot (Aprosmictus erythropterus) in the North-
West Division of Western Australia. —On June 9, 1975, while travelling
north on the Great Northern Highway, I saw a party of six Red-winged
Parrots at 35 km south of Anna Plains turnoff. As this locality is 2 km
south of the Kimberley boundary (lat. 19°30’S), the observation constitutes
the first Western Australian record of this parrot outside of the Kimbcr-
leys.

The question arose were these birds an isolated occurrence or were
they continuous with the main Kimberley population north of La Grange?
During my return trip through this country on September 20-21 I kept a
sharp lookout for Red-winged Parrots and noted single birds at 3 and 10
km NE of La Grange turnoff, 4 km N of Frazier Downs turnoff, 9 km
N of Nita Downs turnoff, and 19 km S of Anna Plains turnoff. Most
of these birds were feeding on the green seeds of a broad-leafed acacia.

Dr G. M. Storr has provided me with additional records (all but
one unpublished) from the far south-west of the Kimberley Division.
C. F. H. Jenkins (Emu, 47, 1947: 39) observed a pair at La Grange in
April 1944. Dr D. L. Serventy saw two birds at a mill 8 km NE of Anna
Plains on September 30, 1958. Mrs. H. B. Gill noted two at ca 40 km
NE of La Grange turnoff on July 11, 1973. During April 9-11, 1974
Messrs. L. A. Smith and R. E. Johnstone observed several birds at
Frazier Downs in pindan scrub, especially around mills; on May 31, 1975
they saw six birds in pindan at 8 km S of Frazier Downs HS. On their
recent trip to the Kimberleys Mr and Mrs R. E. Johnstone made the
following observations: one at 7 km S of Frazier Downs turnoff on
September 21, 1975; one at Frazier Downs HS on September 21 and 29;
two near Frazier Downs HS on September 21; two pairs feeding in low
acacias at 8 km E of Frazier Downs HS on September 28; five around
Nita Downs HS on October 2, feeding on small black seeds in the open
pods of broad-leaf acacias up to 3 m high; and one in low stunted acacia
at 3 km S of Anna Plains turnoff, October 2, 1975.

It seems that south of Dampier Land to the extreme north of the
North-west Division Red-winged Parrots are moderately plentiful near
the coast in a narrow belt of pindan scrub.

—W. H. BUTLER, Wanneroo.

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14

May 30, 1978

No. 3

A RECORD OF THE SLENDER-LEAVED WHITE MALLEE,

EUCALYPTUS FOECUNDA , IN REABOLD PARK, PERTH

By 1. LANTZKE, Graylands Teachers College, and P. McMILLAN,
Claremont Teachers College

Eucalyptus foecunda Schau. (syn. E. leptophylla F. Muell.) is known
in the vernacular as the Slender-leaved White Mallee and also as the
Slender-leaved Red Mallee.

Recently Seddon {Sense of Place, 1972, pp. 115-116) and Tingay and
Tingay ( Eucalypts of the Perth Area, 1976, pp. 10-11) have suggested that
without protection this mallee will soon become extinct on tnc Coastal
Plain. In this regard one of us (P.M.) observed that a very small solitary
grove or these plants was destroyed when a limestone quarry in Bold
Park (City Beach) adjacent to Challenger Drive was contoured.

The species E. foecunda occurs mostly in the drier inland areas of
Western Australia and South Australia, and the plants found on the Swan
Coastal Plain are generally considered to be remnants persisting since
earlier and drier times. As a result the biology of the coastal plants, and
their soil requirements appear interesting, but to date little is known of
these.

We wish to record the existence of a comparatively large stand of
Slender-leaved White Malice in Rcabold Park (Grid Reference 1 15° 46’ 30”
South and 31° 56’ 38” East, Perth map, 2000/09.25) where they are
growing strongly (December 8, 1977). The stand occurs uphill and immed¬
iately to the west of one of the footpaths in the bush to the west of
Perry Lakes, and consists of two groups of the mallee. The smaller group
(area ca.300 m L *) is adjacent to the footpath. The larger group (area
ca. 1,900 nr) is a further 20 m west and stretches uphill some 60 m, the
centre line of the grove having a magnetic compass bearing (uncorrccted)
of 268°.

Fortunately the Rcabold Park fires of December 5 and 6, 1977 did
not cross the footpath or reach the immediate vicinity of either group of
plants.

Both groves arc open and are interspersed with an interesting mixture
of coastal and more woodland plants. Most common are: Pelargonium
capitatum, Hardenbergia comptoniana, Acacia pulchella, Angianthus
cunninghamii, Grevillea thelemanniana, Hibbertia hypericoides , Conostylis
setigera and Casuarina humilis together with many large tufts of Veld grass.

The malices themselves are between 1 m and 2 m tall. Some have
flowered at least twice, as they bore mature nuts in December 1976. How¬
ever, no fruits attributable to a flowering earlier than 1975/76 were
observed.

The blossom attracts a wide variety of Arthropoda, insects being the
major group. Amongst these are several families of Hymenoptera, Diptera,
and Colcoptera. Spiders are present to prey upon the insects. For example
in December 1977 there were many Christmas Spiders (Gasteracantha
minax) in and around the mallees.

Of interest in the Coleoptera are three genera of Buprestidae (jewel
beetles) that have been collected in the flowers: Cisseis sp., Themognatha
elegans and Castiarina —two species. These were collected in 1949 and
1956. Since this time no Buprestids have been recorded from the mallee.

Seed from the 1975/76 flowering was viable in autumn 1977, when
some of it germinated readily in a peat-sand mixture (approximately 1:3).
The resultant seedlings are growing strongly and agree with the description
given by G. Chippendale (Eucalypts of the Western Australian Goldfields ,
1973, p. 138).

Seddon has suggested that the microhabitat of these plants in the
coastal scrub is on calcareous soils over shallow limestone, generally
nearer the coast than the Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala). He has also
drawn attention to other work on the calcareous soils on which many
malices grow.

Such suggestions are not inconsistent with the location of the stand
of E. foecunda reported here, as the limestone outcrops 10 m to the south
of the malices, forming a spur to the dune. The Tuart and other eucalypts
of the area grow further down hill to the east and north-east, while the
grove lenses out to the west, near the top of the ridge, in open shrub land
consisting of the same species growing in the stand, together with Calothanu
nus quadrifidus and Dryandra sessilis.

The mallees are growing in fine grey sand. Measurements of soil pH
were made at several locations around the grove on three occasions and
using two techniques.

On September 14, 1977 and November 8, 1977 field measurements
were made by scraping the leaf litter aside, moistening the soil with
distilled water and inserting an E.I.L. combination glass-calomel spear
electrode into the damp sand. The pH was read on an E.I.L. 3030 field
pH meter. On December 8, 1977 samples of surface soil were collected
and their pH's determined by moistening 100 g of soil with 30 ml of
distilled water and measuring the pH of the resultant thick slurry with an
E.I.L. 7050 pH meter and combination glass-calomel electrode. Readings
on any given sample or site were reproducible within ±0.1 pH units on
every occasion.

Average values (of at least three readings) of soil pH measured “in
situ” under the mallees were 6.6, 7.4, 7.3, 7.4 and 7.4 on September 14,
1977, and 7.4 again at the last site on November 8, 1977, while on this
latter occasion the pH of the soil outside the grove was 7.1 measured 10 m
south of the eastern grove and 8.1 beside the limestone ridge south of the
western grove. Laboratory readings of pH on the collected soils were 7.1
and 7.0 for samples collected from beneath the E. foecunda and 7.4 and
6.6 for samples collected to the north of the two groves.

In view of such variation in pH in the area it does not appear as if
surface soil pH is an important limiting factor in the distribution of the
species in the coastal region, but further work is planned on this aspect.

Because of the occurrence of two common names for the malice, and
our own observations that in late winter and early spring the plants looked
distinctly reddish in colour, while in summer they had a pale greenish
white colour, we made a brief search for the source of the names. We were
unable to locate these, but did find E. foecunda named as cither “Oorag-
mande" or “Fremantle Mallee” and E. leptophylla as “Slender-leaved White
Mallee” in W. F. Blakely's, "A Key to the Eucalypts " (1965, 3rd edition),
first published in 1934.

Only two of the authors we located used the red mallee name. These
were Tingay and Tingay ((loc. cit.) and Chippendale (loc. cit.) the latter
calling it “Narrow-leaved Red Mallee.”

Description of Eucalyptus foecunda. as observed in the stand described
here: The plants are thin-stemmed eucalypts with from 2 to 10 branching
stems arising from each lignotuber. The bark is grey over the lower quarter,
while the upper parts are smooth and red-brown in colour. The leaves are
narrow, pointed and green, with a prominent mid rib, while many also
have red margins (at least in spring). The flowers are small and white,
occurring as groups of from 2 to 8 distinct fruits on a short peduncle. A
few flowers have been observed throughout the period September to April,
but the bulk of the plants flower in the Dccember-February period. The
buds have a conical operculum about the same length as the calyx. The
fruits are small (ca.0.5 cm) with the valves inserted.

The illustration is a photograph of a typical specimen in early
summer.

Eucalyptus foecunda at Reabold Park.

SOME UNUSUAL POLLINATION MECHANISMS IN WESTERN
AUSTRALIAN WILDFLOWERS

By EIGIL HOLM, Byskovsvej 4, 8751 Gedved, Denmark

ABSTRACT

The pollen transfer mechanisms of some species of Conospermum, Leschenaultia
Dampiera, Vorticordia, Actinodium, Darwinia and Chamelaucium are described. Th$
question is raised: what are the pollinators 7

Investigating Western Australian wildflowers for pollination and
pollinating mechanisms in the spring of 1977, I found some flowers trans¬
ferring pollen in a quite unexpected way.

The Stirling Range Smokebush Conospermum dorrienii (Fig. a-c) has
an explosive mechanism. When an insect lands on the tiny platform,
formed by the perianth, and lets its proboscis down to obtain nectar, it
touches two staminodia, which act as triggers. This results in two events.
First, the style smashes forward and touches the insect and puts an ad¬
hesive substance on its head. Before the explosion this adhesive sits like
the rim of a hat around the stigma. Second, the anthers explode and dust
pollen on the insect. Some of the pollen is caught by the adhesive on the
insect.

One can release the explosion by touching the triggers with a straw
and can hear the sound of the explosion.

Obviously the mechanism only functions once. The stigma then must

Fig. 1.—a, b, c: Conospermum dorrienii: a. 1, style before explosion.
2, position of style after explosion; b, flower before explosion; 3, style;
4, anther; 5, staminodia. c, flower after explosion; 6, anther opened;
7, style.

d, e. Leschenaultia linarioides, d, flower (x marks the indusium;,
e, indusium seen from side, 1, the sticky zone; 2, “mouth”, containing the
pollen; 3, lip.

f, g. Dampiera, schematic drawing, f, the position of the indusium (4;
between the bowls (2, 3); 1, the petals; g, the indusium; 5, with its “nose” (6).

receive pollen from the same insect which releases the explosion if
pollination is to take place.

Small insects can be caught by the style. I have seen an ant which
could not free itself from the style, which was pressing it against the
perianth.

The Plume Smokebush (Conospermum incurvum) has a similar
mechanism, but must be visited by other insects as its perianth has another
form.

Leschenaultia (Fig. d, c) also put an adhesive on their visitors. The
style, when young, is formed like a goblet called the indusium. In the
bottom of the goblet’s cup the stigma is found. Before the bud opens the
anthers empty their pollen in the cup. The anthers wilt, and the cup closes.

Now the style grows out and the bud opens. When a visitor enters for
nectar, it touches a part of the style, which is sticky. Then the visitor
becomes sticky, and after that it touches a lip upon the style. This causes
the mouth of the cup to open and the pollen comes out, fixing itself on
the insect.

Apparently most of the pollen goes out at once. The next insect which
touches the lip after a previous visit to another flower, will transfer pollen
to the stigma.

1 have closely investigated three species of Leschenaultia —the Blue
Leschenaultia (L. biloba), the Heath Leschenaultia (L. tubiflora) and L.
linarioides. All had the same pollen transfer mechanism, though the flowers
are so different that they must have very different pollinators.

Dampieras (Fig. f,g) arc very queer. They also have a cup on the
end of the style which is filled with pollen from the anthers while the
flower is in bud. But unlike the Leschenaultias, the cup of the style has
no sticky fluid. Instead the pollen itself is sticky and when an insect
touches the “nose” of the cup, the pollen gets out, probably all of it at
once, and fixes itself on the insect. The cup (indusium) is enclosed between
two bowls (part of the perianth), and the insect must exert force to press the
bowls away from the cup first. Then it can take up the nectar.

I have observed four species of Dampiera and found the same mech¬
anism. These species are D. coronata, D. hederacea, D. sericantha and
D. teres.

The Feather-flowers (Verticordia), Actinodium cunninghamii the
Darwinias and some of the Chamaelauciae all have their pollen embedded
in a sticky fluid inside the anther. While in bud the anthers open, and
the very viscid fluid runs off and is placed either on a brush on the style
just below the stigma or (rarely) on the staminodia. From this place the
pollinators can take the pollen away.

G. J. Keighery has previously described the pollinators of Danvinia
(mostly birds). The Scarlet Feather-flower (Verticordia grandis) with its
conspicuous red flowers and its stiff style also must be bird-pollinated.

L V

Fig. 2.—h, i. Verticordia huegelii, schematic drawing, the sepals are
omitted, h, flower, 1, stigma; 2, staminodium; 3, anther after having re¬
leased its pollen, i, style with stigma (4) and pollen masses (5) on the brush.

The other flowers which 1 have observed probably are insect-pollinated.
I have studied five species of beetles on V erticordia huegelii, but none of
them were pollinating, as no pollen was attached to their surfaces.

All the mechanisms described are unique to Australian plants, so far
as I know. But though I have observed plants for nearly two months in
Western Australia I have not seen pollinators on the described species. 1
should appreciate it very much if readers, who might have observations of
pollinators on the above mentioned species, would tell me by writing
to the IV.A. Naturalist.

I also would be happy, if I could have information on pollinators on
the following plants:

Isopogon fqrniosus

Pixie Mops (Petrophile linearis)

Long-leaved Petrophile (P. longifolia)

Fringe-Lily (Thysanotus multijlorus)

Ifybanthus calycinus

Yellow Buttercups (Hibbertia hypericoides)

Woodbridge Poison (Isotoma hypocrateriformis)

A ndersonia caerulea

Milkflower (Cornesperma virgatum)

Boronia ternata.

REFERENCE

KEIGHERY, Ci. J„ 1975. Parallel evolution of Floral Structures in Dar-
winia and Pimelea. W. Aust. Nat., 13 (2/3):

Note: I thank Mr Keighery for telling me that Conospermum has an
explosive mechanism.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF PELSART ISLAND, ABROLHOS

By RAY GARSTONE, Woodanilling

The following notes were made during a visit to Pelsart Island, in the
Southern Group of the Abrolhos Islands, between October 26 and 31, 1977.

Within an area from 0.5 km south of the guano jetty to 0.5 km of the
southern end of the island there is an expanse of coral sand where vast
numbers of sea-birds nest. The whole of this area is occupied by mainly
three species which nest close together in a three-tiered society. The
Common Noddies nest on the ton of the bushes, the Sooty Terns underneath
on the ground, and the Wedge-tailed Shearwaters in burrows beneath the
surface. The Lesser Noddies, the other main breeding species, nest separ¬
ately 2 km north of this area, in the mangroves. These four species occur
in great numbers. At first sight there are masses of birds streaming in
from many directions to form a vast swarm over the breeding area. The
majority of the wheeling birds are Sooty Terns, in contrast to the Noddies,
which just fly in and out, being content to sit quietly on the bushes. This
wheeling swarm never seemed to vary all day long.

Giant Petrel, Macronectes giganteus .—The remains of two birds were
found.

Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Pitffinus pacific us .—Many birds were seen
over the sea to the east of the island. Although many burrows were
noted norih of the guano jetty most were south of it. Most burrows had
been excavated, with a few adult birds in occupation during the day. At
dusk the bulk of the birds started to arrive and soon great numbers were
skimming silently over the vegetation before alighting at their chosen
spots.

Little Shearwater. Pitffinus assimilis .—Three birds with white bellies,
seen from the boat flying over the sea to the east of the island, were
presumably of this species.

Wilson Storm-Petrel, Oceanites oceanicus. —Three birds observed at
sea east of the island.

White-faced Storm-Petrel, Pelagodromci marina. —A few birds were
flying over the bushes at night.

Australian Gannet, Morns senator, —A single bird seen to the east of
the island.

Pied Cormorant, Phalacrocorax varius. —A flock of 50 birds were on a
sand spit; other odd birds were seen.

Red-tailed Tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricauda. —The remains of one
bird were found on the beach.

Reef Heron, Egretta sacra. —At least six were seen mainly near the
mangrove lake area.

Grey Teal, Anas gibberijrons. —Twelve birds were on the salt lakes.

White-breasted Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster. —At least six birds
were seen; four adults and two juveniles.

Osprey, Pandion haliaetus. —Six nests, most with large young; some
fledged. One nest had eggs.

Banded Landrail, Rallus philippensis .—A single bird seen at the
edge of the mangrove lake.

Australian Spotted Crake, Porzana fluminea. —A single bird at the
edge of the mangrove lake.

Spotless Crake, Porzana tabuensis. —A common bird in the scrubs,
but much more numerous in the mangroves.

Sooty Oystercatcher, Haematopus fuliginosus. —One bird seen.

Pied Oystercatcher, Haematopus longirostris. —Numerous, many in
pairs.

Red-capped Dotterel, Charadrius ruficapillus. —Several birds seen on
the salt lakes.

Large Sand-Dotterel, Charadrius leschenaultii. —Odd birds seen.

Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola. —Up to eight birds seen together.

Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa. —A single bird in company wth
the next species.

Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa lapponica, —Five birds seen on the various
salt lakes.

Common Sandpiper, Tringa hypoleucos .—One bird on a salt lake.

Greenshank, Tringa nebularia. —Two seen on salt lakes.

Grey-tailed Tattler, Tringa brevlpes .—Small groups of up to six birds

seen.

Turnstone, Arenaria interpres. —Very numerous along all shorelines
and salt lakes.

Great Knot, Calidris tenuirostris. —Six birds seen on a salt lake.

Sanderling, Calidris alba. —One seen.

Curlew Sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea. —Five birds on shorelines and
salt lakes.

Red-necked Stint, Calidris ruficollis. —Small groups along shorelines
and around salt lakes.

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, Calidris acuminata. —Three birds seen.

Avocet, Recurvirostra novaehollandiae, —Six at the northern end of
the island.

Oriental Pratincole, Glareola maldivarum. —A single bird with a white
rump flew past along the shoreline in the evening. Next day the bird was
observed several times. Wary and difficult to approach it flew in a typical
pratincole manner, alighting well up on the beach to hide among the
weed. The deeply forked tail, the brilliant white rump, white abdomen,
facial markings and short legs, were noted.

Pacific Gull, Larus pacificus. —A few pairs were well spaced out along
the island. Old nests were seen and two pairs had runner chicks.

Silver Gull, Larus novaehollandiae. —There were not more than 50

birds at the southern end of the island. A few had nests with eggs, some with
small young.

Caspian Tern, Hydroprogne caspia. —A few pairs well spaced. Two
pairs had runner chicks; one with a newly hatched young.

Roseate Tern, Sterna dougallii. —Small groups and odd pairs; som£
birds carrying fish; some courtship display observed.

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii. —A group of 20 pairs were just starting
to nest on the beach near the settlement. About 700 pairs were nesting
at the north end of the island—most nests contained one egg, a few with
small young (P. Fuller).

Fairy Tern, Sterna nereis. —Small flocks were seen feeding offshore
on the east side of the island. A group of 20 pairs were just starting to lay
in scrapes in the coral; four nests were seen, three with one egg, one
with two eggs.

Sooty Tern, Sterna fnscata. —Thousands of birds were nesting under
the bushes in the settlement area. On October 26 eleven nests were found;
however by October 30 eggs were everywhere. Nests were merely scrapes in
the ground, often less than a metre apart. One egg in each nest. King Skinks
ate many of the eggs. Birds were continually flying in from the north,
particularly on the late afternoon of October 27 when thousands were
moving in.

Bridled Tern, Sterna anaethetus. —A group of 30 birds were resting on
the coral near the mangroves.

Common Noddy, A nous stolidus. —Large numbers were present, gen-
erally south of the Sooty Tern area. However some groups intruded well
into the Sooty Tern colony, and a few Sooties nested right through the
Noddy Terns’ area also. Nest sites varied from scrapes in the ground, on the
samphire, and on the ton of bushes. The birds nesting in the samphire were
packed close together; the others were much more spread out. Many birds
were continually flying in with seaweed in their beaks to build onto their
nests. No eggs were found until October 30 when 21 nests were seen, each
containing one egg. Although the birds came in and out from all directions
the largest concentrations were to the east. Masses of birds constantly
moved in and out, sometimes settling on the water in rafts. Apart from a
soft growling, grunting noise the birds were incredibly quiet.

Lesser Noddy, A nous tenuirostris. —Large numbers of birds were
building nests in the mangroves. They started flying out early in the morn¬
ing, flying southwards. They gradually reversed their flight at mid-afternoon,
flying back to the mangroves. Most nests were almost complete, with
many of the birds sitting on them ready to lay. Confiding and very quiet,
their soft calls sounded more like small frogs than birds. This species, too,
picked up weed from the beach, often scooping weed from the sea when
in flight.

Welcome Swallow, Hirundo neoxena. —Pairs seen over most of the
island.

Western Silvereye, Zosterops gouldi. —A very common bird all over
the island, favouring the scrubs.

NOTES ON RAINBOW BIRDS AND FAIRY TERNS
ON ROTTNEST ISLAND

By IAN ABBOTT, ROBERT BLACK and NICOLE GUfiHO,
Zoology Department, University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009.

Rainbow Bird, Merops ornatus

On 9 December 1977 a pair of Rainbow Birds was first observed on
Rottnest Island. The birds sat regularly on fence wires and in trees in
the reafforestation plot just east of lighthouse hill. They were seen on
14 December when we left the island, and were seen on the next visit

(23-28 December 1977). The birds were not seen on the next visit which
began on 23 January 1978. We have no knowledge of whether the birds
nested.

Rainbow Birds have apparently not been recorded on Rottncst before,
because Storr (Emu, 64, 1965: 172-180) does not list them in his com¬
prehensive review of the island’s avifauna. Black has spent 149 days on
Rottnest since August 1974; this is the first time Rainbow Birds have
been seen by him on Rottnest. Rainbow Birds are scarce around Perth,
sufficiently so for Serventy and Whittcll (Birds of Western Australia, 1976)
to list known local nesting localities. One pair turns up each October in
the Tuart forest at Woodman Point, and probably nests there.

Fairy Tern, Sterna nereis

This species’ habit of nesting on beaches and other areas without
plant cover must entail considerable disturbance. In 1975 and 1977 we
observed a breeding colony near Cape Vlamingh, Rottnest Island, adjacent
to the main road. This area was not recorded as a breeding site by Storr
(Emu, 64, 1964: 55-6). On 22 November 1975, the terns were first noted
sitting in a group by the road. On 11 December, Black confirmed that
nesting was in progress: equal numbers of one- and two-egg nests (five
each) were counted on one small corner only (20%) of the total area, so
as to avoid disturbance of the colony. By 18 December 1975 about ten
birds were sitting, with many birds flying overhead. By 23 December
1975 the terns had abandoned the area. Even though December is one
of the peak months for holiday activity on Rottnest, there was no sign
of footprints or broken eggs.

The terns did not attempt to nest at this site in December 1976.
However, in 1977 they were first noted at the same site on December 4,
and on 12 December 1977 about 100 birds were nesting. This time we
noted several Silver Gulls amongst the sitting terns. By December 23,
the colony had been abandoned. We suppose that human disturbance
caused the terns to leave the nests, allowing the gulls to eat the eggs.

BIRD NOTES FROM GREGORY SALT LAKE, GREAT SANDY
DESERT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By L. A. SMITH and R. E. JOHNSTONE, Western Australian Museum,

Perth.

Gregory Salt Lake is centred in 20° 10’S, 127° 30’E, about 70 km
SSW of Billiluna homestead at the northeastern edge of the Great Sandy
Desert. When full it is about 50 km long, 25 km wide and up to 10 m
deep, making it the largest natural body of landlocked water in Western
Australia.

It was discovered by A. C. Gregory in 1856 when he followed Sturt
Creek southwestwards. He rode all the way around the lake to convince
himself it did not drain eastwards, westwards or further southwards.

Carnegie (1898) visited the area in 1896 on his return journey to the
Coolgardie goldfields from Halls Creek. The few people who have visited
the lake since then have been mostly geologists and pastoralists.

Most visitors have been impressed by the variety and abundance of
waterfowl on the lake but little precise data can be gleaned from their
accounts. For example, Carnegie, who camped at the lake in April 1896,

wrote “The lakes and creek abound in wild-fowl of all kinds.so

dense was the crowd of shags, pelicans, snipe, small gulls, whistling duck,
teal, and other birds, that to say there was acre upon acre of wild-fowl
would not be wide of the mark . . .”. Fisheries and Wildlife Warden
McDonald (1969) found the lake full (48 km long and 25 km wide), bird
life “most prolific”, and Pink-eared Ducks present when he visited the lake
early in 1969. However, the amount of water in the lake (and consequently
the number of birds there) varies greatly. Carnegie saw it full about one

month after heavy rains near the source of Sturt Creek. Gregory (1884)
only describes waterfowl as “numerous” and then only along creeks drain¬
ing into the lake.

We visited the lake on 6 and 7 November 1977 and followed the
eastern bank south from the mouth of Salt Pan Creek to a point west
of Lens Bore, a distance of about 13 km.

There are three distinct vegetation zones from the lake edge back to
typical desert vegetation: a samphire zone about I km wide from near
the water's edge to a belt of tall wattle about 100 m wide. The wattles in
turn are flanked by a belt of eucalypts over scattered Triodia. Immediately
beyond the eucalypt belt, which is about 1km through, the desert with
its sand ridges, Triodia, Hakea lorea and stunted Bloodwoods are
encountered.

The following notes are from the lake and the samphire, wattle and
eucalypt zones. Unless otherwise stated, waterfowl were on the lake or
standing at its edge.

Black-throated Grebe (Podiceps novaehollandiae). A group of 10.
another of 3 and a single bird.

Australian Pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus). About 420 in groups
of 20-200 and 1-5.

Little Black Cormorant (Phalacrocorax sulcirostris). About 330. Two
groups of 100, several of 10-60 and several of 10 or less. The many
hundreds of empty nests in the Acacia zone probably belonged to this
species.

Little Pied Cormorant (Phalacrocorax melanoleucos). Less than 10

seen.

Darter (Anhinga melanogaster). About 30, mostly single birds. A
few groups of up to 6.

Pacific Heron (Ardea pacifica). Two together.

Great Egret (Egretta alba). Total of 25. One group of 17, otherwise
single birds.

Black-necked Stork (Xenorhynchus asiaticus). One.

Royal Spoonbill (Platalea regia). Two together.

Black Swan (Cygnus atratus). About 400, most of them in two
groups, one of 200 and another of 150. Two single birds, one with 6
cygnets and another with 3. Three old nests and one fresh nest with

4 eggs.

Black Duck (Anas superciliosa). One group of 200.

Grey Teal (Anas gibberifrons). Total of about 3,500. One group of
2,500 and several of 200-300.

White-eyed Duck (Ay thy a australis). A group of 6.

Brolga (Grus rubicundus). Total of about 570. Two groups of 100 or
more (150 and 100), 11 groups of 10-50 and 8 groups of 10 or less (2-9).

A few feeding on samphire flats.

Coot (Fulica atra). One group of about 5,000.

Australian Bustard (Otis australis) A group of 5 and another of 6,
all on samphire flat.

Masked Plover ( Vanellus miles). Total of 20 (group of 11 another of

5 and 4 single birds).

Red-capped Dotterel (Charadrius ruficapillus). Recorded as “fairly
common”.

Black-fronted Dotterel (Charadrius melanops). Six single birds.

Oriental Dotterel (Charadrius veredus). A group of 40, another 30,
and one of 20.

Greenshank (Tringa nebularia). Four together.

Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola). Eight feeding on bank of floating
yellow weed a short distance from shore.

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata). Three groups: one of 6,
one of 10, and another of 20.

White-headed Stilt (Himantopus leucocephalus). A group of 4 and
another of 30.

Australian Pratincole (Stiltia Isabella). Total of about 35. One group
of 10 and another of 15, remained single birds.

Gull-billed Tern (Sterna nilotica macrotarsa). A total of 56. A group
of 30, remainder in groups of less than 10. One $ collected.

Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia). Total of 32. One group of 20, remainder
in ones and twos.

Whiskered Tern (Sterna hybrida). A total of about 70. Two groups
of 10 and one of 50, some with black on bills. Some perched on floating
yellow weed, just off shore.

Diamond Dove (Geopelia cuneata). Six together in eucalypt zone.

Crested Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes). Three together in eucalypt zone.

Boobook Owl (Ninox novaeseelandiae). Calling from a eucalypt at
night.

Spotted Nightjar (Eurostopodus guttatus). One hawking among eucal-
ypts at dusk.

Red-rumped Kingfisher (Halcyon pyrrhopygia). One calling from
eucalypts.

Bee-eater (Mcrops ornatus). One heard calling once.

Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae). A total of 10 on samphire flat.

Black-faced Cuckoo Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae). One calling
in eucalypts.

White-winged Triller (Lalage sueurii). One calling in eucalypts.

Magpie-Lark (Grallina cyanoleuca). One on samphire flat and another
heard.

Grey-crowned Babbler (Ponuitostomus temporalis). A party calling
in eucalypts.

Red-browed Pardalote (Pardalotus rubricatus). One calling in eucalypts.

White-plumed Honeyeater (Meliphaga penicillata). Fairly common in
eucalypts.

Orange Chat (Epthianura aurifrons). A total of 16 in parties of 3
or 4 on samphire flats; 2 $ $ and 1 9 collected.

Black-faced Wood-swallow (Artamus cinereus). Two in eucalypts and
3 in wattles.

Pied Butcher-bird (Cracticus nigrogidaris). One on nest with 2 eggs
starting to chip, 7 m up in wattle.

REFERENCES

CARNEGIE, D. W. 1898. Spinifex and Sand. C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.

London.

GREGORY, A. C. & F. T. 1884. Journals of Australian Expeditions.

Government Printer, Brisbane.

McDONALD, P. 1969. Quarterly Reports. Dept, of Fisheries and Fauna,

Fauna Bulletin, 3: 10.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE KOONAC IN CAPTIVITY

By KEVIN F. KENNEALLY and KARL C. PIRKOPF, Nedlands

INTRODUCTION

The Koonac (Cheraxs preissii Erichson, 1846) is one of four species
of fresh-water crayfish that are known to occur in south-western Australia.
Except for the work of Shipway (1951) few observations have been pub'
lished on the natural history of the Koonac.

During the Naturalists’ Club Easter Excursion (24-27 March, 1978)
to Northcliffc (lat. 34°38’S, long. 116°07’E), whilst collecting frogs at

night, we discovered a pair of Koonacs in a burrow. The burrow, approxi¬
mately 1 m deep and surmounted by a chimney of compacted mud was
located in a sandy-peat swamp on the southern boundary of Chudalup
State Forest. The vegetation was a low shrubland of Melaleuca leptoclada,
Kunzea recurva and Hakea varia with a dense ground cover of sedges
including Scirpus nodosus and Evandra aristata. The surface was dry
at the time of our visit but the burrow terminated in a small chamber at
the water table.

Fig. 1.—Male Koonac.

Fig. 2.—Female Koonac showing the tail held up under the young which
are attached to the swimmerets.

1-5 cm

Fig. 3.—Male Koonac showing undersurface and genital papillae (gp).

Fig. 4.—Female Koonac showing undersurface and young attached to

swimmerets.

The Koonac were blackish-blue in colour; the male 8 cm in length
(Figs. 1 and 3), the female 10 cm (Figs. 2 and 4). The female’s left claw
was missing and approximately 25 young were counted attached to her
swimmerets; their average size being 6 mm and the average weight 0.05 g
(Fig. 5). The young were suspended with the swollen carapace hanging
down.

Fig. 5.—Photomicrograph of young Koonac after removal from swimmerets.

IN CAPTIVITY

The pair were brought back to Perth and initially housed in a ter¬
rarium until a suitable habitat could be constructed for them. On being
placed in the terrarium during the afternoon they immediately moved
towards a shallow pool of water. The female moved slowly, the tail at
all times being held close under the young. On approaching the water she
turned around and carefully lowered herself, tail first, into the pool.
The male entered head first. They both remained in the water, the male
adopting an aggressive stance—the claws raised—if anybody approached
the terrarium. Occasionally they would both leave the water and move
around the terrarium. During the early hours of the evening the male
constructed a shallow burrow into which the female moved.

A second terrarium was constructed using sand and peat material
obtained from a local swamp. This material was then wet and a water-
table created by the accumulation of the excess water on the terrarium
floor.

Upon being placed in the new terrarium the male almost immediately
began to construct a burrow. The method of digging was for him to rake
the mud underneath himself using the ambulatory limbs and to roll it
around until it formed a compact mud ball. This was then carried out
of the tunnel, being held in position close to the underside of the cephalo-
thorax by the third maxilliped. The mud was then used to build a
chimney and was packed into position using the flattened side of the
claws. During the initial period of digging the female was not seen to
assist but remained in the pool. As the burrow developed the female also
moved in and was seen to remove mud from the head of the burrow and
pass it back to the male who re-worked it into a mud ball and then
carried it outside. As the chimney increased in height the male was forced
to stand on his tail to increase his height, then propel the mud ball upwards
using the ambulatory limbs before patting it into position with his claws.
During this period the female was occasionally observed lying on her side
within the burrow.

Once the tunnel was completed only the male was seen carrying out
minor adjustments and removing the occasional mud ball. During the dig-
ging phase the Koonac were not seen to eat although a variety of food-

stuffs were placed in the terrarium. After four weeks a plug was con¬
structed which effectively sealed both the male and the female in the
burrow.

REFERENCES

SHIPWAY, B. 1951. The natural history of the Marron and other fresh
water crayfishes of south-western Australia. Part 1. W.A. Nat.. 3
(1): 7-12. Part 2. Ibid., 3 (2): 27-34.

FLOWERS ADAPTED TO MAMMAL POLLINATION

By EIGIL HOLM, Byskovsvej 4, 8751 Gedved, Denmark

ABSTRACT

Some Banksias and Dryandras which presumably are adapted for mammal-pollination
are described. The inflorescences are dull-coloured (brownish, reddish, greenish and
violet) and have different odours, which are strongest at night. The inflorescences are
placed on or near the soil or into the shrub. The mouth of one of the presumed pollina¬
tors, the Honey-Possum (Tarsipes spencerae) is described.

The Honey-Possum (Tarsipes spencerae) is specially adapted to take
its food: nectar and pollen from flowers. The teeth are inconspicuous and
unable to chew anything, neither can they pick up insects (Fig. 1). The
tongue is a brush and readily takes up nectar and pollen. The palate
has pronounced ribbing and will probably be able to take the nectar and
pollen from the brush when the tongue is moved against the palate. One
pair of teeth in the front of the upper jaw apparently are adapted for
cleaning the side of the tongue.

On the lower side of the tongue there is a keel, which glides between
the two incisors in the front of the lower jaw. These teeth are placed, so
the movements of the tongue are steered.

Also the Pygmy-Possum (Cercartetus concinnus) and the Dibbler
(Antechinus apicalis) feed on nectar from flowers, but they eat insects too.
They are not so specialised flower-feeders as the Honey-Possum.

The fur of mammals can easily transfer pollen from one flower to
another, and there is no doubt that these mammals in fact do pollinate
flowers.

As there are mammals adapted to flower-feeding and pollination, one
should expect that there are flowers adapted for mammal-pollination. But
no such flower has been described in the literature concerning pollination.

The mammals have been observed and photographed on Banksia
flowers (M. K. Morcombe), but only on Banksias primarily adapted for

Fig. 1.—Honey-Possum (Tarsipes spencerae). a. Palate, upper jaw (2)
with teeth and snout (1). The ridges on the palate are very prominent.
(Schematic drawing), b. Upper side of tongue, c. Tongue seen from the side.
Note the keel below (vertical lines).

Fig. 2.—a. Banksia dryandroides, the spikes are found deep in the
shrub, b. Part of leaf, lx. c. Underside of the leaf with little thorns and
revoluted margins, d. Banksia petiolaris (The soil surface is dotted.)

bird-pollination. The bird-pollinated Banksias have bright red, yellow or
orange flowers in a conspicuous spike, placed on the bush or tree, so that
they are readily seen. Their styles are rigid and their nectar production is
often copious. They normally have no fragrance, as birds have a poor
sense of smell.

During my stay in Western Australia in the spring of 1977 I looked
for flowers which could be specially adapted for mammal-pollination, and
I probably had the luck to find them.

On October 28 1 found a specimen of Banksia dryandroides south of
the Stirling Ranges. It was a shrub, approximately li metres high (Fig. 2).
I tried to take a branch, and as 1 did so, 1 saw the spikes of flowers deep
inside. I tried to pick one of them, but then I discovered it was quite a
difficult job. The long interlaced leaves were a hindrance for my flower¬
picking. A bird probably would be unable to penetrate the foliage to get
at the flowers. But a mammal, coming from below and climbing the
branches, would have easy access to the flowers.

In fact, the bird would scarcely be attracted to the flowers, as their
colours arc an inconspicuous dull yellow-green and brown. Also they
are invisible from the outside. Some of the spikes are situated so deeply
in the shrub that they are placed between the wilted leaves, which remain
on the branches.

The leaves are constructed in a special way (Fig. 2b, c). They are

extremely long, about 20 cm, but only 1 cm broad. They bend easily in
the longitudinal direction, but they are extremely stiff in the transverse
direction due to revolution of the margins. The leaves have teeth, and
there is a little thorn on the apex of each tooth. This arrangement causes
the leaves to be entangled when someone tries to penetrate the shrub from
outside.

The flowers have a stiff style. When you touch the inflorescence you
experience the same feeling as when you touch a clothing brush. Mammals
can climb the inflorescence without causing damage. The perianth is
soft, split to the ground and contains nectar. It will afford no resistance
to the snout and tongue of a mammal.

I collected the flowers at noon, and they only had a faint sweet odour.
As the mammals concerned are nocturnal, I expected that the attractive
odour only would be there in the night. Therefore I made a visit to a shrub
at 10 p.m. some days later in Kings Park, Perth. The odour was much
stronger, a litle sour. It was an odour of the type mammals often have.

In Stirling Range I observed Drycindra mucronata. The leaves are
very similar to Banksia dryandroides, but are longer, about 30 cm. I have
not seen the flowers, but the fruits are inside the shrub, and the flowers
therefore must be there too.

Banksia candolleana is built after the same scheme.

All three plants are so similar that I suspect them to be pollinated
by the same mammals.

I asked Mr Alex George, of the Western Australian Herbarium,
Department of Agriculture, South Perth, if he could name other Banksias
with hidden flowers. He named six species:

* Banksia sphaerocarpa, Banksia elderana, * Banksia baueri, Banksia

caleyi, Banksia lullfitzii and * Banksia nutans.

The species marked with an * do not have interlaced leaves which
prevent penetration into the shrub. I have not seen the other species.

I found three of those species in Kings Park, but none were flowering
at the time. However, on my excursion I found some flowering species
of another type of Banksia, which might be pollinated by mammals: Banksia
blechnifolia and Banksia petiolaris (Fig. 2d). Both of them have their
spikes resting on the soil besides the plant, not between the leaves. Their
styles were stiff, their odour was of that type which you expect from
mammals. Their odour was different and also different from the odour
of Banksia dryandroides. And the odour was most pronounced at night.
The colours of the flowers are dull; B. blechnifolia red-brownish and B.
petiolaris brown. Banksia prostrata is of the same type.

I also observed Banksia pilostylis. Some of its spikes are on the out¬
side, but most are into the shrub. The colour is dull yellow, and the odour
sour, cheese-and-onion-like. I also suspect, that this species might be
mammal-pollinated, but perhaps bird-pollinated, too.

What I have told until now is not a proof, that those plants are
adapted for mammal-pollination. The final proof is, that you observe the
mammals working on the flowers, that you see pollen in their fur, and
that you sec the mammals proceed to other spikes, preferably on other
shrubs. Alas, 1 have not seen these animals alive. Birds and insects could
be found on the flowers occasionally, but mammals should be the main
pollinators.

I would appreciate very much if readers would help me in collecting
evidence by answering some of the following questions:

Which Banksia(s) or Dryandra(s) have you observed?

Which mammals have you seen on the Banksia(s) or Dryandra(s)?

Which colour(s) have the flowers?

Which odour have the flowers by night/by day?

Did you find nectar in the flowers?

When were the flowers observed?

Have you observed birds on the Banksia with spikes on the soil?
Answers could be sent to W.A. Naturalist. I would be grateful, \\
the answer could be accompanied by a twig and some spikes from th^
Banksias concerned.

The answers will be used for my final publication.

Note: The description of the honey-possum is preliminary, and 1 am carrying
on further investigations.

REFERENCE

MORCOMBE, M. K. 1968. Australia's Western Wildflowers. Melbourne.

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

The Oriental Cuckoo at Dampier. —The known distribution of the
Oriental Cuckoo, Cuculus sat u rat us, in Western Australia has been docu-
mented by Servcnty and Whittell ( Birds of Western Australia, 1976). The
only record so far known south of the Kimberley Division of this non-
breeding migrant from Asia was seen in the Pilbara on March 19, 1973.

On the morning of November 28, 1977, an injured Oriental Cuckoo
was found in the garden of a Dampier home. The bird was brought to
me; however I could find no superficial injuries. Unfortunately the Cuckoo
died later that day. Photographs of the dead bird were taken to enable
positive identification to be made.

—K. D. PERRY, Dampier.

Co-operative breeding by Red-winged Wrens (Malurus elegans ).—-
Four years ago when one of us reviewed the incidence of co-operative
breeding in Australian birds (Rowley, Proc. 16th hit. Ornith. Congr.)
eight species of Malurus had been recorded breeding co-operatively (loc.
cit., p. 661).

In September, 1977 Pam Chapman found a nest of Malurus elegans
in Jarrah forest to the south of Mundaring. On 24 September one of us
photographed three individuals (2 SS, 19) attending the nest which by
now contained nestlings. On 25 September the two males were mist-
netted, colour-banded and watched returning to the nest. This is the
first record of co-operative breeding by Malurus elegans.

—GRAEME CHAPMAN and IAN ROWLEY, CSIRO, Division
of Wildlife Research, Helena Valley, W.A.

Adult White-tailed Tropic-bird, Phacthon lepturus, at Torbay.—
Around mid-day on 14 December 1977 we saw a White-tailed Tropic-bird
at close quarters at Torbay on the south coast of Western Australia.

The bird flew over us at a height of about 15 metres, moving east
from the high ground and out into the bay. The differences from the
Red-tailed Tropic-bird, P. rubricauda, were immediately noticed. The central
tail feathers were white and much broader, the underwing pattern showed
a large dark or black area under the primaries contrasting with the all-
white underwing of the Red-tailed Tropic-bird. The bill was light-coloured
and the reflection from the sand made it appear horn-coloured. The
exposed parts of the feet were very dark.

We were both impressed by its smaller size and more gracile form
than the Red-tailed Tropic-bird. Crested Terns nearby provided a frame-
of-reference.

We are both familiar with the Red-tailed Tropic-bird in the wild
and in captivity.

—C. A. NICHOLLS and T. SPENCE.

Rainbow Lorikeets at Safety Bay. —On February 4, 1978 I heard the
loud, excited chatter of lorikeets coming from a group of Norfolk Island
Pines, Peppermints (Agonis jlexuosa) and eucalypts about 300 m from the
jetty opposite Penguin Island at Safety Bay. Moments later I saw two
birds burst from the group of trees, and still calling, fly swiftly north.
The sun momentarily caught the reddish breast of one bird, confirming my
first impression that they were Rainbow Lorikeets (' Trichoglossus haema-
todus).

I was in the vicinity from February 4-13 and heard the lorikeets calling
in the distance twice more (on the 9th and 12th). On the latter occasion
I managed to get close to the tree they were in (a flowering Tuart
Eucalyptus gomphocephala), but the four birds flew off before I could
establish which race of Rainbow Lorikeet they belonged to. I presume they
are part of the population of eastern Australian Rainbow Lorikeets (T.
haematodus moluccanus), first recorded in Western Australia by Storr in
March 1968 (see IV.A. Nat., 12; 116), All but one of the sightings he
reported (Goosberry Hill), were from well established inner suburbs of
Perth.

—L. A. SMITH, Western Australian Museum, Perth.

Tropical Seeds Washed up on Western Australian Beaches. —Occasion¬
ally the seeds and fruits of tropical plants are found washed up on beaches
in South-Western Australia (K. F. Kenneally, Tropical seeds and fruits
washed up on the South-West coast of Western Australia, W.A. Naturalist,
12, 1972: 73-80). The usual theories for their arrival here involve drifting
many hundreds of miles on ocean currents although it is acknowledged
that Man may play a hand in their transportation. My own interest in the
matter was stimulated by the finding of a seed of Caesalpinia bonduc on
the shores of Penguin Island (Excursions: Penguin Island, Safety Bay, W.A.
Naturalist , 12; 1973: 117-120).

In Ghana this seed is used to play a very popular game called ‘oware’
—in fact its Twi name is “oware-aba”—which involves the movement of
some 50 seeds as ‘counters’ along a double row of depressions in the
‘oware board’. It is very fast and rather mathematical—the nearest Euro¬
pean equivalent would probably be backgammon.

Ghanaians also use the fruits of the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, as
counters and a few other species whose names 1 cannot now recall.

I have seen the game being played from the Ivory Coast to the Cam-
eroun—in Nigeria it is called ‘dara’—so that one may assume it to be
common throughout West Africa.

I was surprised, however, to see these same ‘oware boards’ for sale
in Djakarta. Small pebbles were being used as counters, but unfortunately
time did not permit a further investigation of the possible use of seeds.
An enquiry to the Indonesian Embassy in Canberra produced the informa¬
tion that the game is common in Java, Sumatra and North Sulawesi where
it is known as ‘dakon’, ‘congklak’ and ‘kuwung* respectively.

The seeds of asam, Tamarindus indie a, and fruits of sawo, Manilkara
kauki, arc used as counters—but the Embassy did not mention Caesalpinia.

I suppose it is possible that ships may come here from West Africa,
bearing their complement of oware-playing seamen. However, Indonesian
ships certainly do visit our coasts and the sailors may well have an oware-
board and counters. Perhaps the loss of some of these seeds may account
for a few of the beach-washed specimens found on our shores?

My thanks go to M. A. Noerbambang, Cultural Attache, Embassy
of Indonesia, and to Dr P. Wycherley, Kings Park Board, who supplied
a scientific name for ‘sawo’.

—B. M. J. HUSSEY, 45 Miller Street, East Victoria Park.

The elapid snakes Denisonia pallidiceps and Denisonia suta in the
Kimberleys of Western Australia. —Among the additions to the 1957
edition of Glauert’s A Handbook to the Snakes of Western Australia was
a description of Denisonia suta based on a specimen from Kimberley
Research Station near Kununurra.

In 1960 at the Western Australian Museum, Glauert received a
specimen of Denisonia pallidiceps collected at the same research station
by Dr. K. Immelmann.

Since then the Western Australian Museum has accessed specimens
of D. pallidiceps from Mitchell Plateau (14° 53’S, 125° 49’E) and King
Edward River, and specimens of D. suta from Kimberley Research Station
(Kununurra), Lake Argyle and west of Rosewood Station.

Denisonia suta can be distinguished from other Kimberley elapids by
its 19 rows of dorsal scales at midbody.

Denisonia pallidiceps is distinguished from Denisonia punctata (the
other small elapid in the Kimberleys with 15 rows of dorsals at midbody
and undivided subcaudals) by its dark unspotted head and sharp demarca¬
tion between dorsal and ventral colouration.

Other details are as follows:

Denisonia pallidiceps (3 specimens)—Ventrals: 163-176 (mean 172.6).
Subcaudals: 35-46 (mean 40). Ventrals plus subcaudals 209-215 (mean 212).
Snout-vent length (mm): 382-480 (mean 426). Tail as percent of SVL:
13.7-26.5 (mean 18.9).

Dorsum entirely slaty grey or reddish brown. Undersurface
immaculate white except for a row of dark longitudinal spots on posterior
ventrals and all subcaudals. Scales on lower flanks variably marked white
(some scales entirely white) making the demarcation between the dark
back and pale belly irregular. Upper labials pale, grading into the darker
colour of the rest of the head.

Denisonia suta (13 specimens)—Ventrals: 161-181 (n 12, mean 175.9).
Subcaudals: 30-38 (n 12, mean 31.4). Ventrals plus subcaudals: 196-218
(n 12, mean 210.2). Snout-vent length (mm): 194-550 (n 10, mean 374). Tail
as percent SVL: 11.6-15.4 (n 10 mean 13.9).

Back a uniform glossy greyish brown. Head with a darker crown (not
easily seen in dark adults). Upper labials and rostral blotched white thus
forming an irregular white line from gape to gape. Sometimes a broken
white line from nostril through eye to temporals. Chin and margins of
lower labials usually smudged grey. Ventrals dark edged. Subcaudals on
adults with a dark median smudge. Young specimens reddish with a dark

Knca t A pnph cpnln

—L. A. SMITH, Western Australian Museum, Perth.

The Port Lincoln Parrot (Barnardius zonarius zonarius) feeding on
Lerps at Kalgoorlie.—Whilst collecting Port Lincoln Parrots (Barnardius
zonarius zonarius) in June 1977 at a site 50 km north of Kalgoorlie I
observed several of these birds peeling strips of bark from branches of
Eucalyptus campaspe and feeding on some object concealed beneath these
strips.* On closer examination up to three to four scale insects were found
on sections of branches from which the bark had been removed. These
insects w'ere identified (with the assistance of David Morgan, University
of Adelaide, Department of Entomology) as either Glycaspis sp. or
Cometopsylla sp.

Both these genera produce characteristic white, sticky secretions called
lerps which consist predominantly of carbohydrate material (CSIRO,
Insects of Australia , 1970, p. 133). Surrounding the lerp was a viscous
honey-like liquid which presumably exuded from the plant phloem via
openings created by the scale insects.

The parrots fed in the following manner: a strip of bark was removed
initially with the beak and held with one foot (if necessary) while the
bird licked the area covered by both lerp and plant sap. Since part of my
work also involved obtaining crop samples from shot specimens for
analysis of feeding habits, I examined these for the presence of scale
insects and, in one bird’s crop, observed three.

Although Froggatt (Forest Insects of Australia, 1923) stated that
several species of brush-tongued parrakeets fed upon leaf scale insects
in Victoria, no report of Port Lincoln parrots feeding on either scale
insects, their lerps, or Eucalyptus phloem material has been published.
It is common knowledge, however, that the closely related Twentycight

parrot consumes nectar obtained from Marri and other Eucalypt blossoms
(Robinson, W.A. Nat., 7, 1960: 109-115 and pers. obs.).

This intake of high energy food may be important to the birds for two
reasons. Firstly, most at this time of year were associating in pairs and
actively selecting suitable nest sites. Energy requirements during the repro¬
ductive period for birds in general are greater than at other times of the
year (Weiner and Glowacinski, Condor, 77, 1975: 233-242) and hence a
high carbohydrate food source would assist in meeting these requirements.
Secondly, carbohydrate when metabolized produces more heat than either
protein or fat. It may thus constitute an important food item in species
inhabiting areas which experience low winter temperatures, since several
desert species have been found to possess lower metabolic rates and
hence lower rates of heat production than more mesic species (Kendeigh
and Blem, Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 48A, 1974: 175-187).

—O. G. NICHOLS, Zoology Department,
University of Western Australia.

Food of the Western Bower-bird in the Chichester Range, W.A.

In the course of other work in the Chichester Range I was able to
observe a group of Western Bower-birds (C/ilamydcra maculata) over a
nine-month period.

The study area is Narrina Gorge in the Pyramid region of the
dissected area of the Chichester Range. The gorge is fairly straight, cut
into Kyena basalt and is vegetated with open shrubland along the course
of the stream. The sides of the gorge are fairly steep, rising to a plateau
of spinifex grassland on the tops. The gorge is about five miles long and
one group of bower-birds inhabit the whole of it. In 1975 there were four
birds in the group. The bower was centrally situated in the gorge, in a
spot protected by shrubs from cattle and kangaroos, and also from
flooding by its height above the river bed. It was also protected from
fire by being in the creek shrubs rather than the spinifex plains.

Observations were made of birds feeding on succulents. Eleven faeces
samples were collected and checks were made between the seeds found
in the faeces sample and those on the fruiting trees in the gorge. Identifi¬
cation of the plants was verified by the staff of the Western Australian
Herbarium in Perth.

Observations began in April and during that month and May the
birds were feeding on the fruits of Securinega melanthesoides. In June and
July they were observed feeding on the fruits of Amyetna benthamii and
the flower buds of Acacia trachycarpa. In July they could be seen feeding
on three other shrubs: Trichosanthes cucumerina (which was also used
as a bower object), Jasminuni lineare (doubtful food) and Clerodendrum
lanceolatum. The jasmin was not found in the faeces samples but birds
were observed pecking at the fruits on the bushes. From August until
November the birds spend most of their time feeding on Ficus platypoda.
This is the food to which much emphasis is given by Serventy & Whittell
(The Birds of IVestern Australia, 1967) but my observations indicate that
the species is only one of several fruiting plants which are used by bower-
birds, although it does seem to be the main food during the wet season.
It is interesting to note that some individual Ficus plants, one for example
growing by Python Pool, will fruit out of season, as early as July, and
may provide Ficus fruits for the birds at times outside the normal
fruiting period of the plant.

With the advent of the wet season Securinega melanthesoides fruited
and in January 1976 the birds completed the feeding cycle by feeding
on this as well as Ficus platypoda. No birds were observed feeding on
insects.

The above plants are the basic succulents which form the main
framework of their diet, around which, with more detailed observations,
further variations in feeding could be added.

—GORDON BINSTED.

Southern Range Limits of the Rufous-crowned Emu-Wren. —Serventy
and Whittell (Birds of Western Australia, 5th ed., 1976) give the southern
boundary of the Rufous-crowned Emu-Wren (Stipiturus ruficeps) as North
West Cape, Wiluna and Naretha. On the peninsula projecting northwards
as North West Cape, it is plentiful and inhabits big domes of Triodia
(Carter, Emu 3, 1903: 37); in the vicinity of Wiluna, it was collected by
Whitlock (Emu, 1910, 9: 181-219) on Triodia sandplain at Borcwell; and
near Naretha, Collins (S. Aust. Orn ., 1943, 12: 198-201) recorded it in the
semi-arid mallee-Tr/W/Vi country to the north, not in the shrub steppe
of the Nullarbor Plain.

Some recent observations extend these limits further south. Moriarty
(Emu 72: 1972: 5) lists it as occurring in open shrub-land on Triodia -
sandplain on Wanjarri, 95 kilometres south-south-east of Wiluna. G. M.
Storr and I saw a party on 7V/W/a-marble gum-blackboy sandplain with
dunes, 66 kilometres south-west of Wiluna, on the Sandstone road on
September 4, 1966.

Still further south, 1 saw five pairs and/or parties on the plateau
of the Kennedy Range, near Range Bore, east of Carnarvon, on May
21-22, 1975. A pair was collected for the Western Australian Museum
and an empty nest was found in a clump of Triodia. The birds were in
pure domes of Triodia and in Triodia mixed with low heath shrubs, Hakea ,
Calothamnus and Pileaiithus. The plateau of the Kennedy Range is covered
with longitudinal sand dunes and sandplain vegetated mainly with Triodia
and several heath shrubs including Banksia ashbyi, Verticordia forrestii ,
Pileanthus peduncularis , Calytrix muricata and Grcvillea eriostachya.

Ford and Parker (Emu, 1974: 184) point out that the distributions of
Stipiturus ruficeps (including its subspecies mallee) and the Striated Grass-
Wren (Amytornis striatus) are both dependent on Triodia, so are fairly
similar. I searched without success for A. striatus on the Kennedy Range.
An interesting locality additional to those listed by Ford and Parker for
A. striatus is the marble gum— Triodia sandplain with dunes, 10 km west
of Agnew; here N. Kolichis, while with P. J. Fuller and me, saw an
individual on July 18, 1975.

Eckert (S. Aust. Orn., 27, 1977: 186) shows that in South Australia
the emu-wrens S. malachurus and S. ruficeps mallee are marginally sym-
patric. The inland-most occurrence of S. malachurus in Western Australia
is from sandplain-heath, 56 kilometres south-east of Mt. Holland (Ford,
W.A. Naturalist, 1970, 11: 117) a huge distance from the nearest record
of S. r. ruficeps. The closest area of contact between these species in
Western Australia appears to be on the mid-western coast because
malachurus occurs on Dirk Hartog Island and ruficeps is on the Triodia
sandplains between North-West Cape and the Kennedy Range.

—JULIAN FORD, Western Australian Institute of Technology.

Ecological Notes on Carnac Island Tiger Snakes. —Carnac I. is one
of only three islands around the Western Australian coast known to have
populations of Tiger Snakes Notechis scutatus, present. During 1975-77
I spent 70 days on Carnac 1. during which I recorded the distribution,
abundance and length (estimated) of nearly all snakes seen on the island.
Each visit was of one week, during which all parts of the island were
walked over many times.

Carnac I. is small (area 16 ha), low (maximum elevation 17 m), and
about 4 km north of Garden I. and 8 km west of Woodman Point. It is
part of a calcarenite ridge, now largely submerged, and lacks swamps,
the usual habitat of Tiger Snakes on mainland Western Australia (Glauert,
W.A. Nat., 1, 1948: 139-141). There are no frog species, but four
colonial nesting seabird species breed there. In order of abundance these
are Silver Gull. Bridled Tern, Crested Tern and Wedge-tailed Shearwater.
Gull chicks were recorded as eaten by snakes by Nicholls (Aust. J. Zool
22, 1974: 63-70). Mice are also present, and doubtless form part of the
diet. Before 1969 Rabbits occurred, and I have been told that they were
eaten by snakes.

TABLE 1.—NUMBER AND SIZE OF TIGER SNAKES SEEN ON CARNAC I. WITH
INFORMATION ON WEATHER CONDITIONS AND ABUNDANCE OF POSSIBLE' PREY.

Dates

No. snakes

Length (cm)

Weather

Prey

20.-27.1.75

—

Hot, Fine

Many Mice

11.-17.3.75

Fine

29.4-5.5.75

70. 90

Mostly Fine

2 Gull Chicks

24.-30.6.75

not recorded

Wet

Mice active
Many Gull Chicks

5.-11.8.75

Some Rain

Mice active
Many Gull Chicks

23.-29.9.75

60. 90

Mostly Fine

Mice active
Many Gull Chicks

11.-17.11.75

50. 50. 70, 60-90,
60-90, 80, 80, 90-

Fine, Sunny

Mice active

Few Gull Chicks

31.8-6.9.76

20, 50, 90

Mainly Wet

Many Gull Chicks

10.-16.11.76

10x80, 3x90

Gales, Sunny
later

Mice active

Few Gull Chicks

19.-24.1.77

60, 60, 80

Hot, Sunny

Mice active

Table 1 shows that the greatest number of Tiger Snakes was seen
in June and November. Snakes were apparently active in wet periods,
and less so in hot weather. I have no information on their activity at
night. Only two snakes were seen on bushes; the rest were on the ground.
Of the 43 sightings of snakes made, 25 were in the south-western gull
rookery, and 13 in the Acacia rostellifera area on the eastern side of
the island. None was seen on the large southern peninsula, where there
is also a large gull rookery, and where from time to time the only Pied
Cormorant colony is found on the island. No snakes were seen on the
three beaches around the island. I have had reports from yachtsmen who
visited the island 20-30 years ago that snakes were often seen on the
eastern beach.

Snakes varied between 50-90 cm in length, although one 20 cm in
length was seen in September, 1976. This was presumably newly born.
On the mainland, in Cape Le Grand National Park and on Vancouver
Peninsula, Albany, I have seen Tiger Snakes 180 cm in length. It appears,
then, that the Carnac population is a dwarf one. In view of the apparent
abundance of food on the island, this is hard to explain, and warrants
detailed study. On islands in Bass Strait, Tiger Snakes may reach 140-200
cm in length, and so do not show' dwarfism (Green, Rcc. Queen Viet. Mas.,
1969: No. 34; Green and McGarvic, 1971, ibid. No. 40, D. L. Serventy
pers. comm.). On Barrow I., Western Australia, the Mulga Snake Pseu-
dechis australis is half the length of specimens on the opposite mainland
(Smith, W.A. Mat., 13, 1976: 135). It would be interesting to study the
length of island populations of other species such as the Carpet Snake
and Dugite.

The behaviour of the Carnac snakes is placid: none was aggressive
to me. Sometimes I prodded snakes with a 2m long pole. They responded
by flattening the head and displaying the yellow stripes more prominently,
but in no case did a snake strike at the pole. A few times I nearly trod
on a snake, but it retreated quickly into the bush without striking. Tiger
snakes on the Bass Strait islands are also unaggressive (D. L. Serventy,
pers. comm.).

In conclusion, I think the Carnac Tiger Snake population deserves
proper ecological study, especially since it lives in a habitat so unlike that
on the mainland. It is a pity their ecology was not studied prior to the
removal of the rabbits. It is possible that the rabbits (put on the island in
the 1820s to succour shipwrecked mariners and again sometime after
1934 (D. L. Serventy, pers. comm.)) were an important part of the diet
of the snakes.

These observations were recorded during field trips financed by the

Australian Research Grants Committee and the Zoology Department,
University of Western Australia. The Wildlife Authority authorized my
camping on the island. I thank Dr Serventy for his comments on an
earlier version of this note.

—IAN ABBOTT, Zoology Department,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009.

OBITUARY

IVAN CARNABY (1908-1974)

Ivan Clarence Carnaby, an Honorary Life Member of the Club and
one of the most original of recent amateur ornithologists in this State,
died at too early an age at the Boyup Brook Hospital on November 10,
1974. He suffered a heart attack as he was preparing his vehicle for a
field trip to the Kimberley Division. He was born at Subiaco on July 24,
1908. His father, a genial moustached figure, was well-known on the
Swan River as the proprietor of a popular boat-shed at Nedlands until
he died in 1935. The family lived in a large two-storied house at no. 20
The Avenue.

Ivan Carnaby, 1946

Ivan had little formal schooling as he was troubled with bronchitis
throughout his childhood. In 1922 his father bought an orchard at
Parkerville so that Ivan could be in the country each winter to get
away from the damp air. One or other brother stayed with him. From
early youth he was interested in birds and at Parkerville he started an
egg collection with which he persevered for the rest of his life. Right
from the start he kept notes on all the nests he found, data which
proved very productive to other workers. Late in 1927 the orchard was
passed in as a deposit on the purchase of a wheat farm at Lake Grace.
This also was a family concern. The brothers shared work on the wheat

farm but unfortunately got nothing out of it. They lost everything when
the farm was finally abandoned in 1933 owing to the Depression. It was
typical of his character that Ivan did not abandon the debts he had
incurred during this trying period but it was some 15 years before he
finally liquidated his financial obligations.

It was while he was at Lake Grace that Mrs. B. E. Cannon of
Kukerin reported the discovery of the nesting of the Banded Stilt at
Lake Grace in August 1930, and of the probable nesting at the same time
at Lake King. But he heard the news too late to see any" nesting operations
at either lake. As he had no car at the time he pedalled his push-bike the
75 miles to Lake King, over a rough road and impeded by head winds.

While the farm was still in possession of the family, looked after
by his brother Keith, Ivan went prospecting for gold, mainly at Hatters’
Hill, north-cast of Lake King, and at Fields Find. Early in 1934 he went
to the North-West with his younger brother Colin, then 18. They did
contract fencing and well-sinking at various sheep stations including
Landor, Mt. Clere and Ullawarra. Angus Robinson was managing Ulla-
warra then, and this was the first time that these two ornithologists,
both egg collectors, had met, though each knew of the other’s interests!

In 1935 Ivan and Colin, jointly, under the names of I. C. and C. F.
Carnaby, took up a station property at the headwaters of the Ashburton
River, Yilbrinna. He chose this in preference to Paraburdoo. Tunnel Creek
ran through the middle of the station into the Ashburton, with a pool,
Yilbrinna Pool, in its bed between towering cliffs. They were only getting
started when Colin accidentally shot himself when pulling a .303 rifle
out of the tent. Their brother Keith describes the poignant incident: “Ivan
was out getting a kangaroo for food at the time and heard the shot.
When he came back he found Colin dead. He covered him up and made
him as safe as possible from the dingoes, and then went to the nearest
neighbours, at Turee Creek 30 miles away, for help. This happened on
the 1st April, 1937. Colin was just 211 years old. The Police came back
with him three days later and Ivan dug a grave on the spot.”

Ivan returned to Perth. He helped his brother Keith at the boat¬
building shed at Nedlands and made extensive natural history tours
with two other naturalists—Henry Steedman and Horace Brown. Henry
Steedman, who had been for 28 years the head gardener at the South
Perth Zoo, found himself suddenly without gainful employment when
he was retrenched from the zoo in November 1928 on the grounds of
financial stringency. He then tried to support himself by collecting native
plants and seeds. Because he did not drive he availed himself of the
services of others to take him around. His tours with Ivan in 1937 and
1938 included Coolgardie, Kalgoorlie, Mt. Ridley, Esperance, Hopetoun,
Ravensthorpe, the Barrens, Forrestania, Lake Grace, Bunbury, Cockle¬
shell Gully, Jurien Bay and Geraldton. A eucalypt which they collected
at Barberton was named Eucalyptus carnabyi by Blakely and Steedman in
The Australian Naturalist, 10 (8), 1941, p. 259. The description w r as pre-
ptircd by Blakely and stated that the new species was “named in honour
of Isaac Carnaby, entomologist and naturalist.” This error in the Christian
name has been copied by several later writers on eucalypts. The species
is now considered to be a hybrid between E. drummondii and E. macro -
carpa (G. C. Chippendale, Eucalypts of the Western Australian Goldfields,
1973), who states that only one plant is still known near Piawaning; a
photograph is given of it). Horace Brown was an entomologist specialising
in beetles. He had trained as an electrical engineer in New South Wales
and “has since utilised his profession as a means of visiting suitable
collecting grounds” (Musgravc, Bibliography of Australian Entomology,
1932, p. 32). In the 1920’s and early 1930’s he operated a shop, Electric
Utilities, in Perth. He had his own transport but valued Ivan’s bushcraft.
Athol Douglas, of the Western Australian Museum, recalls that Horace
Brown panicked easily and was readily lost. Ivan was a superb bushman.
Brown instilled an interest in jewel beetles in Ivan as well as in Keith,
who also occasionally accompanied them.

Ivan, accompanied by Keith, returned to the North-West in April
1938, bringing with them a headstone for Colin’s grave as well as their
father’s ashes. The site became a family shrine, as later their mother’s
ashes were brought there and it is proposed to honour Ivan’s wish to
inter his there too. The grave will become a registered grave site.

While they were in the north in 1938 the two brothers obtained
fencing contracts and erected 56 miles of fencing on Mulgul Station, south
of Ivan’s old Yilbrinna Station.

Back in Perth Ivan for a while took on an activity which seemed
singularly out of character with his past life—he became a teacher in a
dancing studio! But he was interested in music and was a good player
on the piano-accordion.

This came to an end with the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
Ivan joined up and served in the infantry in various sectors within the
State. The opportunity to partake in some measure of natural history
work came when he was stationed at North-West Cape (“Potshot”)
between early January and late October 1943. Some of his wartime
experiences, and Ivan’s comments on the officers under whom he served,
are amusingly recounted in Marshall and Drysdale’s book, Journey Among
Men (1962).

The War over he became acquainted with and impressed the Perth
naturalists. One of the first to appreciate his skill as a bush naturalist was
the late Hugh Wilson, then an engineer with the Goldfields Water Supply
Department, and a prominent Western Australian ornithologist. He thought
Ivan would be an eminently suitable fauna warden if such a post were to
become available—which it wasn’t at the time. Life in Perth did not
long attract Ivan and in 1945 he took up a large tract of virgin land on
the Toodyay Road, at Red Creek, near Bailup and which he opened up
as a grazing property.

On April 2, 1946 he married Stella Nell Pearce, a talented musician,
a member of the Perth Symphony Orchestra and teacher of the violin.
She gave up all this and went to live at the new home in Bailup. There
many members of the Naturalists’ Club visited them and where, despite
the primitive surroundings, Stella was a gracious hostess. At their various
homes in the bush and country she baked bread and maintained a house¬
hold which won the admiration of visitors. Older Club members will
recall the memorable excursions made to their Bailup property in 1952.
From this base many of us made field trips in Ivan’s company. One such,
with myself and V. N. Serventy, was organized in August 1953 to investigate
whether Banded Stilts were nesting on Lake King.

Eventually he sold out profitably and Ivan and Stella, with their
young family, moved to Carnarvon in late 1954. Whilst there he obtained
a temporary appointment, in 1955, with the CSIRO’s Wildlife Section as
field assistant to E. H. M. (“Tim”) Ealey, then working on the ecology
of the Euro at Woodstock Station. Later that year, through the instru¬
mentality of Dr. A. J. Marshall, who took a great interest in Ivan’s
field work on the effects of environmental factors on the breeding
seasons of birds, he obtained a small grant from the Science and Industry
Endowment Fund.

In February 1957 Ivan left Carnarvon to enter a partnership in a
lead-mining show at Mary’s Springs, north of Galena, near the Murchison
River crossing, but this association proved unsatisfactory. Next year he
transferred to Yalgoo to become a partner in a small gold-mining enter¬
prise. But like his other mining venture this, too, went awry. Eventually
the Carnabys returned to the city and took up residence at East Victoria
Park. From here he periodically went to the outback on various jobs, which
were usually so arranged to enable him to engage in appealing egg-collecting
forays.

He also accompanied other naturalists on numerous excursions. One
of the most extensive began in September 1958 when he linked up with
a party consisting of Dr. A. J. Marshall, Ken Bullcr and myself, going
north to visit Barrow Island, the Montebcllos and the Kimberleys. This
introduction to the ornithology of the Kimberley Division led him to

visit the area a number of times later. Other naturalists with whom he
went on field trips included Phil Fuller and Julian Ford.

Unhappily Ivan’s lengthy absences from home led to an estrangement
with Stella and the eventual breakdown of the marriage. The four
children remained with her and it was a deep personal satisfaction to
Ivan that they all made good in after life. Ivan himself decided to go
farming again at Lake Grace and took up a property there at the end
of 1965. It served as a new base for collecting trips, particularly to the
Kimberleys which now attracted him for nesting studies.

The whole of his extensive Kimberley data, which included details
of every nest found, was handed over to Dr. G. M. Storr of the Western
Australian Museum. These arc being incorporated in the checklist of
Kimberley birds now in preparation. The Kimberley trip for which he
was preparing just before his death was intended to take him over the
Mitchell plateau to Port Warrendcr, where he planned to stay over the
“Wet". His Museum colleagues disuaded him from this project, which
would have left him stranded and alone for many weeks, without possi¬
bility of aid if anything went wrong. Instead he was persuaded to make
for Wyndham which would be safer in the “Wet” and where much work
still required to be done. But he collapsed at his brother’s home at
Wilga whilst loading up his vehicle for the journey and died soon after.

In addition to his primary bird work he collected reptiles for Dr.
Storr. A new species of skink was named after him, Cryptoblepharus
carncibyi.

His friends found him a congenial companion and were always
grateful at his resourcefulness in the bush in getting out of difficulties. He
had a wizard-like skill in repairing broken-down vehicles, and it was said
of him that he could virtually re-build a car with any materials at hand.
This mechanical ability enabled him to get by for years with motor
vehicles an ordinary individual would discard as near-wrecks. But when
coming into the City, however, he would become very apprehensive with
them once he crossed the Causeway: he could never be certain whether
his “bomb” might stop at embarrassing situations. Thus he always tried
to avoid having to make right-hand turns. When at last he did buy a
new vehicle, in 1955, he was so punctiliously careful of it that he was
exacting in his choice of co-drivers. His friends would consider it a
compliment if invited to share the driving!

He was kind and generous to brother-naturalists and aided all in
their work. How helpful he was to Major Whittell and myself when we

were preparing our Birds of Western Australia is evident by the frequency

of his name in its pages as the source of facts.

In his natural history studies Ivan was an acute and thoughtful
observer, and it is a pity that his publishing record is comparatively

slight. He found writing arduous and left most of the recording of his

observations to others.

As an egg collector he was no mere accumulator of egg shells. He
generalised from his field work on the control of breeding seasons in
this State. At the meeting of the local branch of the Royal Australasian
Ornithologists* Union on August 30, 1946 I gave a talk on the factors
controlling breeding and soon became aware of Ivan’s keen gaze rivetted
on me. He astonished me during the ensuing discussion by delivering a
very erudite lecturette, quite off the cuff, on nesting timetables in the
North-West, dividing various species into three main categories—those
which would nest any time of the year immediately after good rains;
those which nested at a particular season, but only if the conditions were
right; and those that observed a regular nesting period irrespective of
the nature of the season. He rattled off lists of species as examples of
each category (Western Australian Bird Notes, No. 4, December 18, 1946,
p. 11). Major Whittell and I featured these generalisations in the “Nesting
Seasons” section of our Birds of Western Australia, 1948. Later he elabor¬
ated on his ideas in an article in the Western Australian Naturalist (vol. 4,
1954, p. 149). It was this which brought him to the attention of Dr. A.
J. Marshall.

Several important distribution discoveries of arid-country birds were
first made known by Ivan. One striking example was the Banded White'
face, which was first brought to light as a new species by the Horn
Expedition to Central Australia in 1894. It was not known to be in
Western Australia until the late Otto Lipfert collected specimens along
the Canning Stock Route in 1930-31. Then we were all surprised to be
told by Ivan that it actually occurred much further west, to the junction
of the Lyons and Gascoyne Rivers. Subsequently Michael Brooker extended
the limits even further westwards, to Callagiddy Station, not far froifl
Carnarvon. Ivan also provided notable new information on the nomadisiP
of the White-browed Wood-Swallow. Before his observations, in 1964,
about the only previous knowledge of the occurrence of the species in
this State was F. Lawson Whitlock’s record as far back as 1909 in the
Wiluna area. Ivan observed local nesting, including the occurrence of a
hybrid with the Masked Wood-Swallow, in the Yalgoo-Paynes Find area-
He was also the first to record the occurrence of the Elegant Parrot in
the North-West—at Woodlands Station in the Gascoyne in 1955, then the
northern known limit of the radial expansion of the species, and which has
since extended to the Fortescue.

One of his outstanding discoveries was his recognition of a distinct
short-billed population of the White-tailed Black Cockatoo. He hinted at
its being an undescribed race in his article on Lake Grace birds, published
in the Emu in 1933 but was advised to eliminate the formal description
he had intended. In 1948, with more material available, he named this
as Calyptorhynchus baudinii latirostris. Recent work by Denis Saunders
of CSIRO indicates that this form is quite distinct and may have to be
elevated to full species status.

A list of the bird articles by Ivan Carnaby, to 1950, is given in
Major Whittell’s The Literature of Australian Birds, 1954, p. 117. Those
published subsequently arc:

Nesting Seasons of Western Australian Birds. W.A. Nat., 4 (7), 1954:
149-156.

“Clifton Downs” as a collecting locality for birds. W.A. Nat., 4 (7),
1954: 172.

The White-browed Wood-Swallow in Western Australia. The Emu,
65 (1), 1965: 74.

Records by him are also given in articles published by other authors,
including P. J. Fuller, R. E. Johnstone, J. R. Ford, and in the Birds of
Western Australia (Serventy and Whittell, 5th edn.).

—D.L.S.

CORRECTION

In the previous number (Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 55), in the item “The Little
Shearwater on St. Alouarn Island. W.A.” by S. G. Lane a line has been
duplicated and a line dropped. In paragraph 3 line 7 should read:
“examined and nearly all showed evidence of recent attention. Fresh foot-”

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14 November 30, 1978 No. 4

A POPULATION STUDY OF THE BARROW ISLAND AVIFAUNA

By ERIC H. SEDGWICK, Harvey

Summary

Four weeks of intensive field work on Barrow Island (c. 22,260 ha) in August 1976
on the status of birds then present, particularly the Black-and-white Wren and the
Spinifex-bird, was mainly concentrated upon their population strength. The count methods
are described and the results given in detail. The most numerous species was found
to be the Spinifex-bird with 17,800 individuals, followed by the Welcome Swallow 8 500;
the Black-and-white Wren, 8,150; the Tree-Martin, 7,050; the White-breasted' Wood-
Swallow, 3.450: the Singing Honeyeater, 3.050, and the Kestrel, 1,650. The remaining
species were represented by fewer than 1,000 individuals, the most numerous of these
being the Horsfield Bronze-Cuckoo with 910 individuals. Sea and shore-birds were
the subjects of separate counts.

As holder of the 1976 Barrow Island Research Grant, the writer was
domiciled on Barrow Island from August 2 until August 30, 1976. During
the whole of this period he was fortunate in having the full co-operation
and assistance of Mr. W. H. Butler, Conservation Consultant to WAPET
(West Australian Petroleum Pty. Ltd.). Without this assistance the work
undertaken would have been impossible.

Descriptions of Barrow Island (area c. 22,260 ha) are available in the
following studies, F. Lawson Whitlock (1918, 1919), D. L. Serventy and
A. J. Marshall (1964), W. H. Butler (1970, 1975, 1975a) and A. A.
Burbidge and A. R. Main (1969).

THE AVIAN POPULATION

Hereunder follows a tabular, annotated summary of the birds so
far recorded on Barrow Island, with the authority for each record, an
indication of their breeding status and an assessment of population
strength as at August 1976.

Column 1 gives the species recorded by F. Lawson Whitlock (in 1917
and 1918). Column 2 gives those listed by D. L. Serventy and A. J.
Marshall (in 1958). Column 3 lists the observations published by W. H.
Butler (1970, 1975). Column 4 the additional species recorded by Butler
but unpublished, and Column 5 the species observed by Butler and
myself during the research project now reported. Column 6 is the popu¬
lation strength recorded in August 1976, and Column 7 the source of this
information (detailed later in this paper, pp. 99-104).

The following symbols are used: O—sight observation; B—breeding
recorded; S—specimen handled, but not necessarily preserved; P—photo¬
graph taken.

The Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union has recently issued
lists of amended bird names both vernacular and scientific and these
were used in preparing the original report but as some are announced as
of an interim character (Schodde, 1975) and several differ considerably
from general usage, it has been thought desirable to conform to the names
used in previous papers in the Barrow Island scries i.e., Butler, 1970 and
1975, as well as with the latest edition of Serventy and Whittell’s Birds
of Western Australia , 1976.

Map prepared by West Australian Petroleum Pty. Ltd. (WAPET).

SPECIES

Little Grebe, Eudyptula minor
Yellow-nosed Albatross,

Diomedea chlororhynchos
Wedge-tailed Shearwater.

Puffinus pacilicus

Wilson’s Storm-Petrel

Oceanites oceanicus

Australian Pelican, Pelecanus

conspicillatus

Count

Masked Booby, Sula dactylatra

Brown Booby, Sula leucogaster
Pied Cormorant, Phalacrocorax

varius

Count C

Black Cormorant, Phalacrocorax

carbo

Lesser Frigate-Bird. Fregata
ariel

White-faced Heron, Ardea

novaehollandiae

Little Egret, Egretta garzetta

, c

Reef Heron, Egretta sacra
Mangrove Heron, Butorides

.. c

striata

Nankeen Night-Heron.

.. c

Nycticorax caledonicus

Black Swan, Cygnus atratus

.11

Count

Grey Teal. Anas gibberifrons

Wood Duck, Chenonetta jubata

Osprey, Pandion haliaetus
Black-Shouldered Kite,

Count C

Elanus notatus

Square-tailed Kite,

Lophoictinia isura
Black-breasted Kite, Hamirostra

melanostema

Red-backed Sea-Eagle,

Haliastur indus

Whistling Eagle, Haliastur

,, C

sphenurus

White-breasted Sea-Eagle,
Haliaeetus leucogaster
Wedge-tailed Eagle, Aquila

Estimate

audax

Spotted Harrier, Circus assimilis

180

Count A

Little Falcon, Falco longipennis

Brown Hawk. Falco berigora
Nankeen Kestrel. Falco

Estimate

cenchroides

Brown Quail. Synoicus

1,650

Count A

ypsilophorus

Bustard, Eupodotis australis
Beach Stone-Curlew, Esacus

magnirostris

Pied Oystercatcher, Haematopus

„ c

ostralegus

Sooty Oystercatcher,

240

„ c

Haematopus tuliginosus

„ c

Grey Plover, Pluvialis squatarola
Eastern Golden Plover, Pluvialis

dominica

Large Sand-Dotterel,

Charadrius leschenaultii
Oriental Dotterel. Charadrius

„ c

veredus

Red-capped Dotterel,

Charadrius ruficapillus
White-headed Stilt, Himantopus

231

„ c

himantopus

Banded Stilt, Cladorhynchus

leucocephalus

Turnstone, Aren aria inter pres

183

„ C

SPECIES

6 7~

Eastern Curlew, Numemus

madagascariensis

3 ,, C

Whimbrel, Numeni'us phaeopus

42 ,, C

Little Whimbrel, Numenius

minutus

Wood Sandpiper. Tringa

glareola

Grey-tailed Tattler. Tringa

brevipes

177 ,, C

Common Sandpiper, Tringa

hypoleucos

33 C

Greenshank, Tringa nebularia

9 ., C

Terek Sandpiper. Xenus

cinereus

1 Count

Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa

limosa

36 Count C

Bar-tailed Godwit. Limosa

lapponica

87 Census C

Knot. Calidris canutus

10 Estimate

Great Knot, Calidris tenuirostris

10 Estimate

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, Calidris

acuminata

Red-necked Stint. Calidris

ruficollis

318 Count C

Curlew Sandpiper. Calidris

ferruginea

Sanderling. Calidris alba

27 C

Australian Pratincole. Stiltia

isabella

Silver Gull, Larus

novaehollandiae

592 Count C

Caspian Tern, Hydroprogne

caspia

63 ,, C

Gull-billed Tern. Sterna nilotica

3 ,, C

Common Tern. Sterna hirundo

Roseate Tern. Sterna dougallii

Bridled Tern, Sterna anaetheta

Fairy Tern. Sterna nereis

100 Estimate

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii

96 Count C

Lesser Crested Tern, Sterna

bengalensis

57 ., C

Lesser Noddy. Anous

tenuirostris

Peaceful Dove. Geopelia striata

Bar-Shouldered Dove. Geopelia

humeralis

180 .. A

Galah, Cacatua roseicapilla

Little Corella, Cacatua

sanguinea

Budgerygah, Melopsittacus

undulatus

Pallid Cuckoo. Cuculus pallidus

3 Estimate

Black-eared Cuckoo.

Chrysococcyx osculans

Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo,

Chrysococcyx basalis

910 Count A

Boobook Owl. Nmox

novaeseelandiae

6 Estimate

Barn Owl. Tvto alba

6 Estimate

Spine-tailed Swift, Hirundapus

caudacutus

Fork-tailed Swift, Apus pacificus

Sacred Kingfisher, Halcyon

sancta

12 ,, C

Welcome Swallow, Hirundo

neoxena

8,500 ,, A

Tree-Martin, Petrochelidon

nigricans

7,050 ,, A

Fairy Martin, Petrochelidon

ariel

Australian Pipit, Anthus

novaeseelandiae

50 Estimate

SPECIES

6 7

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike,
Coracina novaehollandiae
White-winged TriHer, Lalage

15 Estimate

sueurii

Spinifix-bird. Eremiornis carteri
Brown Songlark.

17,800 Count A

Cinclorhamphus cruralis
Black-and-white Wren, Malurus

6 Estimate

leucopterus

8,150 Count A

Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater,
Anthochaera rufogularis
Singing Honeyeater, Meliphaga

virescens

3,050 Count A

Yellow Silver-eye, Zosterops

lutea

20 Estimate

Painted Finch. Emblema picta

Zebra Finch, Poephila guttata
Magpie-Lark. Grallina

100 Estimate

cyanoleuca

White-breasted Wood-Swallow,

6 Estimate

Artamus leucorhynchus
Masked Wood-Swallow.

3,450 Count A

Artamus personatus
Black-faced Wood-Swallow,

Artamus cinereus

Little crow. Corvus bennetti

Birds recorded on Barrow Island may be provisionally categorized
as follows:

A. REGULAR MIGRANTS

At first sight this appears a clear-cut category. However reports
indicate that there are always some migrant waders present—there are
far more “over wintering” individuals than are to be seen in more southerly
parts of the State. This matter could well receive attention from observers
during the southern winter. We found 14 species of recognised migrant
waders within a few days of our arrival, i.e. during the first half of
August, and most of these were present in some strength. Some showed
traces of breeding plumage. Yet Maud D. Haviland (1926, p. 169) writes:
“On the Yenisei tundra the advance guard of birds appears about the
beginning of June, but the main body does not arrive until later in the
month . . . snow does not disappear until the beginning of July . . .
there is at most eight or ten weeks in which to pair, build the nest,
hatch the eggs and rear the chicks”. And discussing the southward migra¬
tion she states (p. 175): “The birds of the polar basin begin their south¬
ward migration very early. Already by the end of August our [British]
coasts arc invaded by parties of waders, generally young birds . . .” On
the Yenisei tundra “July and August are the summer months . . . The
end of August secs the last of the fine weather ... the last birds depart
... By the middle of September the land is white . . The Year Cycle
Charts by James Fisher (1947, vol. 1) confirm these patterns.

The presence of numbers of Palacarctic waders in Latitude 20°
South in August or earlier requires explanation. Mr. R. B. Sibson, of
Auckland, New Zealand, tells me that his observations suggest that
some immature birds do not migrate to Siberia but remain in warmer
regions, e.g., the Pacific islands, though they leave the more southerly areas,
e.g. New Zealand, during the southern winter.

The regular migrants to Barrow Island are the following:

Grey Plover
Golden Plover
Large Sand-Dotterel
Oriental Dotterel
Turnstone
Eastern Curlew
Whimbrel
Little Whimbrel
Wood Sandpiper
Grey-tailed Tattler
Common Sandpiper
Greenshank
Terek Sandpiper
Black-tailed Godwit

Bar-tailed Godwit
Knot

Great Knot

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
Red-necked Stint
Curlew Sandpiper
Sanderling
Pallid Cuckoo
Horsfield Bronze-Cuckoo
Spine-tailed Swift
Fork-tailed Swift
Sacred Kingfisher
White-winged TriHer

B. IRREGULAR NON-MAR1TIME VISITORS

These are species not recognised as regular migrants which have been
recorded on Barrow Island but which are almost certainly not present
at all times. In some cases the presence of standing fresh water may be
decisive, e.g. with water-fowl.

Little Grebe
White-faced Heron
Little Egret
Nankeen Night-Heron
Black Swan
Grey Teal
Wood Duck
Square-tailed Kite
Black-breasted Kite
Whistling Eagle
Wedge-tailed Eagle
Little Falcon
Brown Hawk
Brown Quail
Bustard

Australian Pratincole
Peaceful Dove

Galah

Little Corella
Budgerygah
Black-eared Cuckoo
Barn Owl
Fairy Martin

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike
Brown Songlark
Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater
Crimson Chat
Yellow Silver-eye
Painted Finch
Zebra Finch
Magpie-Lark
Masked Wood-Swallow
Black-faced Wood-Swallow
Little Crow

C. MARITIME SPECIES

Individuals of some of these appear to be present at all times and
there may well be a resident population, while others are wide-ranging
species which occur only at times, e.g. boobies and Lesser Frigate-bird.

Wedge-tailed Shearwater
Yellow-nosed Albatross
Wilson's Storm-petrel
Australian Pelican
Masked Booby
Brown Booby
Pied Cormorant
Black Cormorant
Lesser Frigate-bird
Reef Heron
Mangrove Heron
Osprey

Red-backed Sea-Eagle
Beach Stone-Curlew

Pied Oystercatcher
Sooty Oystercatcher
Red-capped Dotterel
Silver Gull
Gull-billed Torn
Caspian Tern
Common Tern
Roseate Tern
Bridled Tern
Fairy Tern
Crested Tern
Lesser Crested Tern
Lesser Noddy

D. RESIDENT LAND BIRDS

The thirteen species included here are birds which appear to be always
present and the populations appear to be stable:

Black-shouldered Kite
White-breasted Sea-Eagle
Spotted Harrier
Nankeen Kestrel
Bar-shouldered Dove
Boobook Owl
Welcome Swallow

Tree-Martin
Australian Pipit
Spinifex-bird
Black-and-white Wren
Singing Honeyeater
White-breasted Wood-Swallow

•The White-breasted Sea-eagle presents a problem. Unlike the Osprey and the
Red-backed Sea-Eagle, it does not confine its activities to the coast but ranges and
forages over most of the Island, thus contriving to be both a land bird and a maritime
species. Nest debris, examined on numerous occasions by W.H.B., proved to be
terrestrial rather than marine in origin.

A SPECIES LIST

With Notes on Distribution and Breeding

Throughout the investigation on Barrow Island localities of all indi¬
vidual birds recorded were plotted on separate species maps.

Birds recorded in previously published lists but not encountered during
this survey were in most cases almost certainly absent and were not
included in this list unless some comment appeared desirable.

An asterisk indicates a species not previously recorded for Barrow
Island.

*Diomedea chlororhynchos, Yellow-nosed Albatross.

Since my return from Barrow Island, W.H.B. has advised me of a
further new record—a bird of this species which he collected on the
west coast of the island on February 8, 1977, as a beach derelict.
Identification was confirmed by the Western Australian Museum and the
skull retained. This record is within the recognized range of the species
but is outside the area in which it is known to occur commonly.

Puff inns pad ficus, Wedge-tailed Shearwater.

No birds were seen. Burrows on Double Island (visited August 19,
1976) were evidently in use—recent tracks were discernible at burrow
entrances. From one burrow a moaning call was heard, indicating, per¬
haps, courtship. Burrows noted were towards the centre of the northern
part of the Island and were excavated under cap rock. There were a few
burrows on the western side of Mushroom Island, also under cap rock.

Pelecanus conspicillatus, Australian Pelican.

A flock of 23 birds was usually to be found on an islet in Bandicoot
Bay. Apparently the birds left the island in groups at low tide and could
then be seen foraging off-shore.

Phalcicrocorax varius, Pied Cormorant.

Birds were usually seen congregated on a rocky foreshore or flying
off-shore in skeins, presumably to or from fishing grounds. Principal con¬
gregations noted were at Perentie Two—51 birds, Bandicoot Bay—c. 40
birds, Mushroom Island—c. 50 and Double Islands—c. 55. (The last two
records could well refer to the same flock).

Ardea novaehollandiae, White-faced Heron.

As there was no standing fresh water on the island it was not sur¬
prising to find that these birds were present only upon inshore reefs
and usually near the outer edge. Our distribution map for the species
suggests that the birds strongly favoured the southern part of the island.
Excepting one record at Turtle Bay, all were on the south or south-west
coasts. Five was the largest number seen at any one time.

Egretta garzetta, Little Egret.

Not encountered. The species was recorded by F. Lawson Whitlock
on his first visit in 1917. TTiis record was omitted from lists published
by later investigators. We were particularly watchful and whenever pos¬
sible viewed white-plumaged egrets closely. All seen proved to be Reef
Herons. However, there appears to be no reason why the Little Egret
should not occur as there is plenty of apparently suitable coastal habitat
available.

Demigretta sacra, Reef Heron.

At various times a total of 66 birds was recorded. Of these 19 were
white-phase birds. From these figures it may be deduced that the pro¬
portion of white-phase birds at Barrow Island is 29% with a 95% proba¬
bility that the lower limit is 19% and the upper limit 41%. Birds fre¬
quented all types of shores, usually in pairs, sometimes singly: it was
rare to find a stretch of shore without at least one bird.

Butorides striatus, Mangrove Heron.

This species was encountered only at Mattress Point, Stokes Point,
Perentie One and Perentie Two; all localities where mangroves occur.

All records were of the red form. (Whitlock mentions “a still smaller
bittern”—a puzzling reference. No habitat which I would regard as being
suitable for the Little Bittern occurs.)

*Nycticorax calectonicus, Nankeen Night Heron.

On August 23, eleven birds, all in adult plumage, were flushed from
mangroves near Stokes Point. No evidence of breeding was seen.

Pandion haliaetus, Osprey.

All records of birds were made on or near the coast and, with a few
exceptions, in the sandy south-west corner of the island, all nests were on
the coast, usually situated on rocky headlands, cliffs or rocky islets. In a
few cases work sites have been utilized, e.g. at Town Point and on an
‘off-shore’ drilling site connected to the island by a causeway at Bandicoot
Bay east. Twenty-three nests are known on Barrow Island but these are
not necessarily all used at one time. Our beach count shows 39 birds
which is reasonably consistent and suggests that a population of c. 20
pairs is likely. Nests inspected contained: Two downy young and one
(? infertile) egg (August 3), Two eggs (August 3—and revisited August 30,
when two young were half fledged). Two downy young and one egg
(August 4). Two eggs and one newly hatched chick (August 19, Double
Island). Two chicks at an advanced downy stage (August 29).

Elanus notutus, Black-shouldered Kite.

These birds seemed to favour the southern and the northern thirds
of the island: an alternative interpretation would be an avoidance of the
higher, rocky and sparsely vegetated west and west central part of the
island.

Haliastur indus, Red-backed Sea-Eagle.

With one exception, all sightings of birds were on or near the coast
and all nests known—six—arc on the coast. Five of these nests are in
mangroves, Avicennia. Our beach census gives a count of 15 birds which
is consistent with a population of 6 pairs. A nest near Stokes Point,
examined on August 23, contained one downy chick just beginning to
fledge and one cold egg, dimensions 58.1 by 41.7 mm. On August 29,
W.H.B. located a nest at Turtle Bay containing two fledged young.
An old nest at Mattress Point, situated 2.5 m from the ground in a
mangrove, contained the remains of many grapsid crabs—surprisingly,
the chelae were unbroken.

Haliaeetus leucoguster, White-breasted Sea-Eagle.

Unlike the Osprey and the Red-backed Sea-Eagle, this species ranges
well inland, though it appears to avoid the high, rocky country of the
west central area. One bird observed among Triodia in a valley three
kilometres inland proved to be with a kill—a Hare Wallaby, Lagorchestes
conspicillatus. All known nests—eight—are on the coast or on islets, e.g.
Double Island and Pasco Island. The beach count gives only three birds—
hardly consistent with six nests on the main island or with our fairly fre¬
quent records of birds quartering the inland areas, though the low beach
count could be explained by the tendency of these birds to forage inland.
A nest inspected on August 10, contained two chicks in the down.

Circus asstniilis, Spotted Harrier.

These birds are a familiar sight over most of the island—only the
west-central area being avoided. They are probably wide-ranging, so
the number of sightings may not reflect accurately the actual number
present, but I would say that they are more frequent on Barrow Island
than in any other area that I have examined.

*Falco berigora, Brown Hawk.

This species was encountered on only four occasions—thrice within
three kilometres of WAPET Headquarters and once to the north-east of
Flacourt Bay. Quite possibly only two birds were present on the island.
All records were of dark birds.

F. cenchroides, Nankeen Kestrel.

This is the most widely distributed and probably the most frequent
bird of prey on the island. They may show some slight preference for
the coastal strip—which is explained in part, perhaps, by the abundance
of suitable cliff nesting sites. Birds arc rather frequently observed perched
on termitaria.

Bur hi mis magnirostris, Beach Stone-Curlew.

We twice encountered a single bird on the muddy inshore reefs at
Mattress Point.

Haematopus ostralegus, Pied Oystercatcher.

These birds may be encountered on almost any beach, even rocky
foreshores. Two nests were located to the west of Stokes Point on August
25, one just above high water mark containing one egg, the other 13
metres above high water mark contained two eggs.

H. fuliginosus, Sooty Oystercatcher.

This bird has a similar distribution to the preceding species showing
no marked preference for any particular type of shore.

Pluvialis squatarola, Grey Plover.

Birds were located on three beaches, all in the south-west of the
island. A party of nine seen on August 25 at Bandicoot Bay included
one bird in transition plumage suggesting that this party at least might
be newly arrived from the breeding grounds.

P. dominion, Eastern Golden Plover.

This species was located in only two localities—two birds to the
west of Stokes Point and parties of three and of four birds at Mattress
Point.

Charadrius leschenaultii, Large Sand-Dotterel.

This proved to be one of the more generally distributed waders.
They were frequently encountered on inshore reefs foraging singly or in
small parties.

C. ruficapillus, Red-capped Dotterel.

Records are mainly from the eastern and southern beaches with muddy
inshore reefs and sand. Three nests were located, all on oil drilling sites,
one on the coast, one 260 m inland and one 800 m inland. The first was
located on August 9, the second on August 26 and the third on August 7.
Each contained two eggs.

*Clcidorhynchus leucocephalus, Banded Stilt.

The remains of a bird found on a rocky shore near WAPET Camp
were identified by the Western Australian Museum which, in view of the
unusual locality, is retaining a leg and a wing.

*Himantopus himantopus, White-headed Stilt.

Three observed on January 29, 1976, by W.H.B. on a claypan at
South End.

A renaria interpres , Turnstone.

Fairly widely distributed on the inshore reefs. Pebbles generally are
lacking, but in a few instances birds were seen to turn loose reef material.

Niimenius madagascariensis, Eastern Curlew.

Single birds were recorded at Mattress Point and at Bandicoot Bay.

TV. phaeopus, Whimbrel.

Birds were observed in small parties or, more often, singly, on eight
beaches.

Tringa brevipes, Grey-tailed Tattler.

Flocks were occasionally encountered e.g. 24 at Mattress Point on
August 4 and 27 at Mattress Point on August 11, but usually birds occurred

singly or in small parties on the inshore reefs. They were among the
more frequently encountered waders.

T. hypoleucos , Common Sandpiper.

Usually encountered singly or in pairs on inshore reefs.

T. nebularia, Grecnshank.

Noted singly or in small parties on sheltered beaches viz.: Mattress
Point, Tank Farm beach and on the south coast.

*Xenus cinereus, Terek Sandpiper.

One encountered to the west of Stokes Point on August 23. It was
immediately recognisable by its orange legs, up-turned bill and white
brow. This proved to be the only one seen: it is apparently less frequent
here than in similar habitat near Cairns.

*Limosa litnosa, Black-tailed Godwit.

Identified at two localities in the south-west of the island.

L. lapponica. Bar-tailed Godwit.

This appears the commoner of the two godwits on Barrow Island
and it seems probable that godwits seen at Flacourt Bay were of this
species. All other records were for the south coast where this species was
identified on a number of occasions.

* Co lid r is canutus, Knot.

While we were observing Great Knots on the intertidal flats to the
west of Stokes Point, W.H.B. drew attention to some slightly but defin¬
itely smaller birds with similar stance and rather plump, squat appearance.
Their underparts were plainer than those of the Great Knots but these
were possibly in transition plumage.

*C. tenuirostris , Great Knot.

Several were observed with other waders on a sheltered beach near
Stokes Point on August 23. Noted: Moderately long, straight, blackish
bill. Sloutish legs, appearing blackish. Larger than Tattler and Curlew
Sandpiper—smaller than Godwit. Wing streaky. Dark line through eye.
Chest mottled with blackish scallops. White bar on upper tail visible
in flight. There was a little variation in plumage within the flock, but
the foregoing description is typical. I would judge the birds to be in
transition plumage, or even in breeding plumage. It is perhaps significant
that these birds were not recorded until August 23—possibly newly arrived
migrants. Most illustrations show the Great Knot as much plainer below
than the birds I encountered. However, the figure in Birds of the World
—Austin and Singer, is strikingly similar. The same — or similar—birds
were encountered at Bandicoot Bay on August 25.

C. acuminata, Sharp-tailed Sandpiper.

On August 16 we encountered three birds, one in non-breeding
plumage, the others with a trace of rufous on their underparts—possibly
juvenile birds or birds retaining a trace of breeding plumage.

C. riificollis, Red-necked Stint.

This species proved to be frequent on the southern and eastern
beaches of the island. It was usually encountered in small parties but on
August 11 we noted 40 at Mattress Point and on August 23 “a large number
i.e. hundreds” to the west of Stokes Point, a few with noticeably reddish-
plumage on the neck. In the same area on August 25 a few birds were
noted with rufous checks and breasts. It appears likely that the number
present increased during the course of the month.

*C. ferruginea , Curlew-sandpiper.

We recorded this species sparingly on the south coast but not until
August 16. At least one seen displayed chestnut-red below — apparently a
bird in transition plumage. The whitish rump pattern was noted on three
occasions.

*C. alba, Sanderling.

Five birds were noted on Whites Beach, six on a beach near Cape
Dupuy, five on a sandy beach in Bandicoot Bay and one on a beach west
of Stokes Point. Noted: Shortish black bill. Dull black legs. Wings pale
grey with black shoulder and leading edge (some only). Head and under¬
parts, white: neck pale. Tail pattern, in flight, white with narrow dark
centre. In size the birds were less than Turnstone and Large Sand-Dotterel
and greater than Red-necked Stint and Red-capped Dotterel. The bird seen
singly impressed me as being very active.

Lams novaehollandiae, Silver Gull.

Silver Gulls could be seen on most beaches but not in large numbers
—c. 20 at the most. Only near WAPET Camp could large numbers be
anticipated: a careful estimate made at a favourable time was 430. The
birds usually kept close to the shore line but at c. 1715 hrs on August 16,
following rain, many gulls were ranging up to two kilometres inland in
the area just to the north of the Camp and were catching ants on the wing.

*Geloclielidon nilotica. Gull-billed Tern.

On August 9 we observed one bird in flight and perched on the
seaward edge of the reef at a beach on the south-west coast, and, on
August 25, three birds at Bandicoot Bay. All birds seen were in winter
plumage i.e. with nape and back of crown only faintly marked with grey.

Hydroprogne caspia, Caspian Tern.

Caspian Terns were seen mainly in twos and threes on most beaches.
On August 7, three birds were seen flying over a shoal of dolphin, Tursiops
truncatus, diving from time to time, though not actually into the water.
They followed the dolphins along the southern shore of the island into
Bandicoot Bay. I would suppose that the birds were interested in securing
prey disturbed by the dolphins. On August 19 two downy chicks were
located on a cliff top at the southern end of Mushroom Island. Nearby
an egg was located—dimensions 70.2 by 44.0 mm—but this appeared rather
old and not necessarily contemporaneous with the chicks.

*Sterna hirundo longipennis, Common Tern.

A specimen forwarded to the Western Australian Museum by W.H.B.
at some time prior to this investigation was identified and retained—
specimen no. 14427.

*S. nereis, Fairy Tern.

Small flocks and single birds were noted on a number of beaches,
mainly on the east and south coasts. We were watchful for Little Tern.
S. albijrons, which, I feel, could occur in this area, if only as a straggler,
but all small tern definitely identified were S. nereis. Three or four birds
with dark or parti-coloured bills were assumed to be juveniles. W.H.B.
was surprised to find that this species had not been previously listed for
Barrow Island as he was aware of its occurrence. A colony of 90 to 100
birds was nesting on the eastern end of Mushroom Island; c. 45 nests
were grouped quite closely, some only 300 to 500 mm apart. The majority
contained eggs, many one egg, some two and a few, three, and the
remainder chicks in the down. It was considered inadvisable to procure
more precise data, a procedure which would have taken some time
and caused a prolonged disturbance of the birds, but the foregoing
estimates were made with some care.

S. bergii, Crested Tern.

It was anticipated that S. bengalensis would occur on Barrow Island,
so all crested terns were examined as closely as possible and the majority
was definitely identified. Crested Terns were encountered on eight beaches,
with probable records on two others, in parties of two or three. At
Perentic Two a flock of 28 crested terns was encountered, but this was
a mixed flock. W.H.B. found one egg just above high water mark. This
was lodged at the Western Australian Museum in October 1975—specimen
no. A 14428.

*S. bengalensis , Lesser Crested Tern.

Eight birds were identified at Perentie Two, four birds, one immature,
at Flacourt Bay, three birds, one immature, at WAPET Landing, two
birds to the west of Stokes Point and an uncertain number in a flock of
28 Crested Terns at Perentie Two. In each case the orange-yellow bills
were plainly discernible.

Geopelia striata, Peaceful Dove.

This species was recorded by F. Lawson Whitlock (1917) but the
record has been omitted from later lists. The occurrence of this species
as a straggler appears by no means improbable.

G. humeralis, Bar-shouldered Dove.

It is hard for one accustomed to meeting this species in the riparian
forests of northern Australia to accent the fact that on Barrow Island
the birds arc almost completely adapted to life in the Triodia. There is
some slight dependence upon such trees as occur for nesting sites, but
W.H.B. has located nests in rock cavities. Apart from a suggestion of
concentration round WAPET Headquarters and round WAPET Camp
there is at first sight little in the species’ distribution map to indicate that
occurrence on the island is regulated by water supply: it seems likely that
the birds travel some distance to drink. There is a slight suggestion of
preference for coastal localities. Analysis of the 23 localities at which
birds were recorded shows that 9 (39%) were within 0.5 km of the shore,
but of these 7 (30%) were also within 0.5 km of a water source and
only 2 (8.7%) were near the coast but not near fresh water. Of the whole,
11 (48%) were within 1 km of water. The foregoing figures exclude the
two known island populations—Double Island and Mushroom Island.
The inclusion of these would strengthen a case for coastal preference.
It would seem that water is the dominant preference but that a coastal
preference is significant: if the birds travel to water once or twice daily,
the pcrcentum of records near water may not reflect the species’ real
‘domicile’ and one is left with a fairly well-marked preference for coastal
areas. Old nests were located in stunted trees and in rock cavities, usually
between one and two metres from the ground. One such nest 1.7 m
from the ground in a Eucalyptus patellaris in the Valley of the Giants
contained the remains of two eggs, one, nearly intact, measuring 27.3
by 20.1 mm.

Cacatua roseicapilla, Galah.

Not encountered: Mr. Davis, W.T. operator on Barrow Island, reported
a recent visit of a flock of c. 40 birds.

*Cuculus pallidus, Pallid Cuckoo.

One bird was recorded near WAPET Camp on August 3, one near
the southern end of the island on August 7, and one in the same general
locality on August 14. Possibly only one bird was present.

Chrysococcyx basalts, Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo.

During the period of the research project these birds were very
frequent—perhaps more frequent than in any other area in which I have
encountered this species. Calls were frequently heard and groups of up
to at least five birds were not uncommon, from which I would suppose
that courtship was proceeding. No young were seen. The host species
would be, presumably, the Black-and-white Wren. Birds were usually
associated with shrubs but needed only a minimum of such cover. The
species was widely distributed though records were infrequent in the
thinly vegetated central part of the Island.

Nino:x novaeseelandiae , Boobook Owl.

Singing Honcycaters were ‘mobbing’ a bird which may have been of
this species at Mattress Point, but satisfactory views were not obtained.

*Tyto alba, Barn Owl.

W.H.B. had an unpublished record of this species which he first
observed in November 1975. If this were a resident species it would surely
have been recorded earlier, especially as W.H.B. has done much spot¬
lighting for mammals. It seems likely that the bird is an irregular visitor
to the island. The same could be said of the Boobook Owl. On August
16, at c. 1700 hrs, we investigated a report of an owl in a store at Tank
Farm. We flushed a Barn Owl from a nearby engine shed whence it
flew to an adjacent roof. Two Kestrels then attacked the owl with vigour,
dislodging some plumage. A few typical pellets were collected from the
engine shed.

*Hirundapus caudacutus, Spine-tailed Swift.

Recorded by W.H.B. prior to the time of this present research project.

Halcyon sancta, Sacred Kingfisher.

Birds were recorded, usually singly, at Mattress Point, WAPET
Camp, Perentie Two and near Stokes Point. All, except the camp, were
localities with mangroves, Avicennia . The possibility of Mangrove King¬
fishers, //. chloris, being present was not overlooked, but all birds seen
and heard (they were rather silent) appeared to be of this species. Birds
were present throughout the time that we were on the Island. W.H.B.
has recorded birds throughout the year.

Hiritndo neoxena , Welcome Swallow.

The species map shows Swallows to be widespread with an indication
of preference for coastal areas: the ridge in the west-centre of the island
seems to be avoided. Only one occupied nest was located—on the top of
a ventilator at the Mess in WAPET Camp. The nest had been used
previously and the edge had been raised almost to the roof, making
entry—and inspection—difficult. Three young left the nest on August
26. A bird seen about a building near the heliport was carrying a shred
of canvas but we could not locate a nest.

Petrochelidon nigricans, Tree-Martin.

The distribution map for this species shows a preference for coastal
areas, though not the actual beaches, with some extension inland in
both north and south to include the claypan areas.

Ant bus novaeseelandiae, Australian Pipit.

Five Pipits were noted at a claypan area to the east of Cape Poivre
and single birds in each of four localities in the southern part of the
island. Four of these localities are in or adjacent to claypan areas.

Coracina novaehollandiae, Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike.

On five occasions up to four birds were seen a little to the west of
WAPET Landing, on two occasions one bird was seen at WAPET Camp,
two were seen at the Valley of the Giants and a flock of ten was seen
to the south of WAPET Headquarters.

Eremiornis carteri, Spinifex-bird.

Spinifex-birds were recorded wherever there was Triodia, i.c. over
93% of the island. Indeed two were seen in Spinifex longifolius on coastal
dunes, though this was adjacent to Triodia. In places, Triodia extends to
high water mark. Hence the bird is fairly evenly distributed over practically
the whole island. Dew bathing was observed. The birds—there were at
least two—called, wallowed in Triodia, perched on a clump, fluffed out
their feathers and sang. On August 27 an apparent display was observed.
A bird called from an elevated perch—a purring call followed by a
triple note. One wing was raised while the other was fluttered to accom¬
pany the call. A second bird was present suggesting that this might be
a courtship display. Generally however, the birds were hard to observe.
Though probably not particularly shy, they spend most of their time in
Triodia clumps and usually appear only briefly. Three birds were occasion-

ally encountered together, but we gained a strong impression that two was
the mode.

Cinclorhampus crurcilis, Brown Songlark.

A bird was heard and seen by W.H.B. at WAPET Camp on August 8
and one heard on August 12 at the Valley of the Giants.

Malurus leucopterus, Black-and-white Wren.

This species is widely and fairly evenly distributed throughout the
Triodia areas: in this respect it is rivalled only by the Spinifex-bird.
Though these birds show a partiality for the usually rather sparse shrubs
they also arc birds of the Triodia and apparently favour the top of a clump
of Triodia as a nest site. Information on the average number of birds in
a group would have been invaluable in our survey. A search of the
literature available produced only one relevant reference, “Helpers at
the Nest in Australian Passerines”, by C. Harrison, Emu, 69, p. 32:
“. . . parties of up to ten in the breeding season with one full plumagcd
male.” This reference was to the species’ mainland ally, Malurus
leuconoius. On Barrow Island, five was the largest number of birds we
encountered together and with never more than one fully-plumagcd cock.
W.H.B. when spotlighting for mammals has not infrequently encountered
parties roosting, usually on a dead Trichodesma or other relatively high
perch. Such parties usually comprise no more than five, usually four.
Only disused nests were found. One, with two eggs, was taken from the
top of a low bush. Dimensions of the eggs were 15.5 by 12.1 mm and
15.7 x 11.8 mm. Two other nests were situated on the tops of clumps
of Triodia.

Meliphaga virescens, Singing Honcycatcr.

The range of this species on Barrow Island is comparable with
that of the Spinifex-bird and of the Black-and-white Wren even though
it is not a bird of the Triodia: indeed its range extends beyond the Triodia
to the coastal vegetation and to the WAPET Camp. Avicennia, Eucalyptus,
Ficus, Erythrina and, apparently, any of the shrubs meet the needs of these
birds. Individuals were observed probing JIakca suberca and Pittosporum
phylliracoides flowers. At WAPET Camp I suspected the birds ot utilising
the lighting system to extend their normal hours of activity. Certainly
I observed them at first light clinging to a render wall below a lamp and
apparently catching insects. Birds have nested at the WAPET Camp: an
old site in an ornamental Tuart, Eucalyptus gomphocephala, was inspected.
During the latter part of our stay a nest was commenced in a shrub near
the Mess, but it was not completed.

*Ephthianura tricolor, Crimson Chat.

W.H.B. observed five birds at the old unsealed airstrip near Airport
Creek on January 23, 1975.

Zosterops lutea, Yellow Silver-eye.

We saw this species only in the mangroves to the west of Stokes
Point—two birds on August 23 and c. 12 birds on August 26. On both
occasions strong winds made detailed observation impossible. Such calls
as I heard appeared to resemble those of the Western Silver-eye, Z. gouldi.

Poephila guttata, Zebra Finch.

This species appears to have a rather restricted distribution on the
island: we found it only in the northern part where it was associated
with the claypans (Agrostis) and the Erythrina in the same general area
—and at the Airport where the artificial water supply could be an
attraction. The largest flocks encountered—c. 15 and c. 12—were at
temporary pools in the claypan area on August 16, rain having fallen
the previous day. Erythrina appears to be favoured for nesting: a number
of apparently disused nests was found. Some at least of these appeared
to be breeding nests, i.e. not roosting nests.

Grallina cyanoleuca, Magpie-lark.

Single birds were noted on three occasions—twice (August 3 and 16)
to the east of Bandicoot Bay, and once at WAPET Camp.

Artamus lencorhynchus, White-breasted Wood-Swallow.

We found these birds fairly frequent in northern, eastern and southern
parts of the island, but apparently absent from the western and central
areas.

ASSESSMENT OF THE LAND BIRD POPULATION

Considering the four categories of birds defined earlier, it appeared
probable that the land birds were the most likely to be affected by human
activity on Barrow Island. Of these species the one immediately attracting
attention was the Black-and-white Wren. Of next most importance from
the conservation angle was the Spinifex-bird. Both birds occupy similar
habitat—one which dominates almost the whole island—so an effort to
determine as accurately as possible the population of these birds was
given priority. In considering method, it soon became apparent that with
only 13 species of resident terrestial birds any count of the Triodia
population could well embrace the whole.

As the Triodia on Barrow Island occupies 21,700 ha, at first sight
an attempt to assess the avian population of such an area may appear
so ambitious as to border on absurdity. However, the limited number of
species, lack of identification problems and the generally uniform habitat
all favoured a sampling enterprise. Above all, such an attempt appeared
desirable: it is generally accepted that such statements as “frequent”,
“rare”, or “more frequent than at the time of our previous visit” are
highly subjective. Hence my decision to attempt a numerical assessment
setting out in detail the methods employed so that a future worker may
carry out a study which will provide a valid comparison or may repeat
the project if he so desires.

METHOD OF SAMPLING: COUNT A

(a) A quadrat with an area of 0.5 ha was used.

(b) Ideally the positions of the quadrats would have been determined
by a grid, but conservation measures in force on the island prohibit the
use of vehicles except on recognized roads or tracks. It was expedient,
therefore, to use roads for access and place quadrats at 1.2 km intervals
on the left hand side along tracks selected to produce, in effect, a grid
distribution of quadrats. The necessity for reasonable access will be
appreciated when it is understood that a distance of 2,400 km was travelled
while making these counts. One hundred quadrats had been proposed,
but it was found that eighty adequately covered the area.

(d) The first and second counts were made in the mornings—0700
hours to 1130 hours. The third count was made in the afternoon—1300
hours to 1730 hours. In practice the second and third counts were made
in parallel.

(e) Birds in flight over the quadrat were included in the count—
this to accommodate the aerial foragers. Efforts were made to ensure
that, as far as possible, a bird making several traverses was counted
once only.

(f) A description was made of each quadrat in terms of vegetation,
terrain and disturbance.

(g) Both observers worked together on all occasions, from the
periphery of the plot, when this was practicable. Audubon Bird Calls
were used as these proved effective in bringing Spinifex-birds into view:
other species seemed little influenced.

COUNT A: ANALYSIS OF TRIODIA SURVEY

The total number of birds of each species recorded in the three
counts at the 80 quadrats was averaged and multiplied by 180—i.e., 21,700
ha, the total area of the Triodia habitat, divided by 120 ha, the area rep¬
resented by 240 observations of 0.5 ha quadrats; to give the estimated
total population figure.

The results are summarized in the following table:

SPECIES

Estimated

Population

SPECIES

Estimated

Population

Spinifex-bird .. .

... 17,800

Large Sand-Dotterel ....

. 350

Welcome Swallow ...

.... 8,500

Bar-shouldered Dove ....

. 180

Black-and-white Wren ,

.... 8,150

Spotted Harrier .

. 180

Tree-Martin .

.... 7,050

Silver Gull .

. 180

White-breasted Wood-Swallow

.... 3,450

Pallid Cuckoo .

. 180

Singing Honeyeater .

.... 3.050

Grey-tailed Tattler ....

. 180

Nankeen Kestrel . .

.... 1,650

Osprey .

. 180

Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo ....

910

Pied Oystercatcher.

. 180

Australian Pipit .

350

Caspian Tern .

. 180

COMMENTS ON RESULTS OF COUNT

Figures for the Charadriiformcs and the Osprey are almost undoubt¬
edly unsatisfactory i.e. they arc too high. These species are accidental to
the Triodia being surveyed: the individuals seen appeared to be taking
short cuts from one shoreline to another. The Australian Pipit could also
be considered accidental to the Triodia, being rather a bird of the Agrostris
claypans. The Pallid Cuckoo seen, though in proper habitat, was possibly
the only one on the island: the species was not present in numbers.

There may have been a case for excluding the species mentioned
above from the count, but it was deemed advisable to give all species
counted consistent treatment.

Figures for the remaining species, i.e. for those distributed throughout
the Triodia, are presented with confidence. It was to accurately assess these
populations that the method was designed.

There appears to be no significant difference between counts made
within the present oil field and those made in the so-far unexploitcd area.
However in this connection it should be observed that even outside of
the oil field, a certain amount of disturbance has taken place—roads,
tracks, gravel extraction areas and special installations e.g. WAPET
Landing and Tank Farm.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF TRIODIA AVIFAUNA

At the conclusion of Count A, the ‘best’ and ‘worst’ quadrats were
selected on the basis of the number of birds recorded. In determining the
quality of quadrats, we were influenced by the presence or absence of
supposedly resident species—Spinifex-bird, Black-and-white Wren and
Singing Honeyeater—rather than by the aerial feeders and raptores. These
quadrats were plotted on maps, but no very obvious pattern emerged
except that our subjective impression that the high, rocky country of the
west side of the island was unfavourable to bird-life was confirmed.

A critical field re-examination of these quadrats indicated that the
unproductive quadrats were characterized by Triodia not more than 400
mm in height and perhaps low or sparse shrubs, e.g. Trichodesma, some¬
times combined with a high pcrcentum of bare or stony ground. The
productive quadrats on the other hand were characterized by tall Triodia
exceeding 400 mm in height, often augmented by shrubs, usually Acacia
bivenosa, the whole providing good cover.

The height of the Triodia appears crucial.

100

COUNT B

During the second and third series of counts made in connection with
Count A, birds observed outside of the quadrats were also counted irres¬
pective of their distance from the quadrat limits. Birds counted within
the quadrats were also included.

The figures provided by these 160 counts made at the 80 quadrat
localities enable the species involved to be ranked by: (1) Number of
times species recorded, and (2) Number of individuals recorded.

SURVEY B (1)—RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF SPECIES OBSERVED

(This table shows the times species recorded as a percentum of counts
made, i.e., 160):

No.

Species

Percentum

1 .

Spinifex-bird

Singing Honeyeater

Black-and-white Wren

Welcome Swallow

Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo

Nankeen Kestrel

Spotted Harrier

Tree-Martin

White-breasted Wood-Swallow

10.

Black-shouldered Kite

11.

Bar-shouldered Dove

12.

White-breasted Sea-Eagle

13.

Red-backed Sea-Eagle

14.

Osprey

15.

Australian Pipit

16.

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike

> 1

17.

Pallid Cuckoo

> 1

18.

Brown Hawk

> 1

19.

Grcy-tailed Tattler

> 1

20.

Zebra Finch

> 1

21.

Silver Gull

> 1

22.

Pied Oystercatcher

> 1

23.

Sacred Kingfisher

> 1

24.

Caspian Tern

> 1

25.

Large Sand-Dotterel

> 1

26.

Sandpiper (sp)

> 1

SURVEY B (2)—NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS RECORDED

No.

Species

Within

Quadrat

Outside

Quadrat

Total

1 .

Spinlfex-bird

324

383

Black-and-white Wren

231

256

Singing Honeyeater

125

133

Tree-Martin

Welcome Swallow

White-breasted Wood-Swallow

Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo

Nankeen Kestrel

Spotted Harrier

10.

Bar-shouldered Dove

11.

Black-shouldered Kite

12.

Pied Oystercatcher

13.

White-breasted Sea-Eagle

14.

Red-backed Sea-Eagle

15.

Osprey

16.

Australian Pipit

17.

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike

18.

Zebra Finch

19.

Silver Gull

20.

Large Sand-Dotterel

21.

Sacred Kingfisher

22.

Caspian Tern

23.

Grey-tailed Tattler

24.

Pallid Cuckoo

25.

Brown Hawk

26.

Sandpiper (sp.)

Two

counts at each quadrat

Total 190

939

1129

Average of the counts

Total 95

469.5

564.5

101

COMPARISON BETWEEN TR/ODJA AREA SURVEY RESULTS

In the following table the species logged in the main count, Count A,
are ranked in descending order and the first eight selected, i.e., all species
of which more than two individuals were recorded. This seemingly arbitrary
procedure has the advantage of excluding all obvious stragglers to the
Triodia.

The same species are then ranked in descending order according to
their placement in Surveys B2 and Bl.

SPECIES

SURVEY

Spinifex-bird

Welcome Swallow

Black-and-white Wren

Tree-Martin

White-breasted Wood-Swallow

Singing Honeyeater

Nankeen Kestrel

Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo

A close agreement between Counts A and B2 is to be expected as
both relate to individuals. A less close agreement between Count A
and Count Bl is to be anticipated as the latter deals with species and
might be expected to discriminate against species which occur in flocks.
The Spearman's Rank Difference Correlation Co-efficient between the
ranking of Count A and those of Count B2, as shown above, is 0.74;
confidence level = 95%.

To obtain a co-efficient of Concordance between the three rankings,
Kendall's version of the method was used, giving a co-efficient of 0.75,
a measurement which can be accepted with a confidence level of between
95% and 98%.

However, it must be observed that the dropping of those species
deemed to be stragglers to the Triodia, though reasonable to a field
observer, is open to rather serious statistical objection.

NICHES WITHIN THE TRIODIA AREA

The following relatively small niches in the Triodia area appeared to
warrant special examination. A summary of our observation in each
follows.

Eucalypt Areas

There are on the island two small stands of Eucalyptus patellaris
occupying steep slopes of rock and gravel. Few of the trees exceed five
metres in height.

Both of these stands were examined. The only birds noted among the
trees were Bar-shouldered Doves, Singing Honeyeaters and one Black¬
faced Cuckoo-Shrike. None of these species is confined to the eucalypt
area. Two old nests, apparently of Bar-shouldered Doves, were located in
the trees. However, the doves arc not dependent upon the eucalypts for
nest sites: elsewhere on the island they nest in Ficus and in rock recesses.

The flowering of the eucalypts is linked to the rainfall and the main
season is between December and March, but flowering is not regular and
may occur at other times (W.H.B.).

In short, the eucalypts appear to have no real significance to the
avifauna. This is possibly because the niche is too small to support a
resident population and too isolated to attract eucalypt-frequcnting nomads.

Erythrina Areas

The island supports a few small stands of Erythrina vespertilio wind-
pruned to heights of about three metres. Birds noted in these stands were
Black-shouldered Kite, Singing Honeyeater, Horsfield Bronze-Cuckoo,
Spinifex-bird, Black-and-white Wren and Zebra Finch. None of these is
confined to the Erythrina. The presence of Spinifex-birds and Black-and-
white Wrens is probably explained by the ground cover of Triodia which

102

persists under the Erythrina canopy. It would appear that the Zebra Finch
favours the Erythrina as a nest tree: we located seven nests in one clump.
Ficus (spp.)

Two species of Ficus occur distributed throughout the island and one
would expect them to provide shelter, perches, nesting sites and a source
of food for birds. Different clumps fruit at different times, providing a
rotation. However, no bird species appears to have found much use for
these trees and they are surprisingly little frequented except by Singing
Honeyeaters which use them as song perches. W.H.B. has observed them
catching insects in the clumps.

The Wapet Camp

WAFET Camp is reasonably compact, comprising two groups of
huts, a mess and ancillary buildings and a grassed recreation area. The
introduction of a few trees not native to the island has been permitted
and there are now some River Gum, Eucalyptus camaldulcnsis, Coastal
Moort, Eucalyptus platypus , and Tuart, E. gomphocephala, some of the
latter up to six metres in height. The Camp has an adequate water supply
and water can easily be obtained by wild life, e.g. at the swimming
pool, though this was dry at the time of my visit. The recreation field
attracts aerial feeders and W.H.B. has observed Little Whimbrel, Pipits
and Magpie-Larks on this grassed area. Several bird species show some
preference for the camp area, viz:

White-breasted Wood-Swallow: On one occasion, when rain threatened,
c. 60 birds assembled in close formation on a radio aerial. This appeared
to be most of the Camp population.

Silver Gull: Birds in the vicinity of the Camp rest at times on the
beach nearby. On one such occasion we counted 430 birds.

Welcome Swallow and Tree-Martin: Both of these species occur
throughout the island, but may often be seen in relatively large numbers
about the Camp. On one occasion c. 40 Tree-Martins were present.

Nankeen Kestrel: A pair was in residence at the Camp.

Singing Honeyeater; This was a conspicuous bird about the Camp
but the species is widespread on the island so the Camp population may
not exceed average density by very much. Personnel provide food for
the honeyeaters at the mess.

Bar-shouldered Dove: These birds are seen about the Camp, possibly
attracted by water available.

Magpie-Lark and Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike: Neither of these species
is common on the island, but both were recorded at the Camp during
the study period.

ASSESSMENT OF THE MARITIME BIRD POPULATION

Accessible beaches were visited and counts made of seabirds and
shorebirds present. This survey was limited to the period August 3 to
August 13, having in mind possible changes in the occurrence of migratory
waders. No significant changes in the composition of the wader population
were evident during that period. The beaches examined are representative
and include sandy shorelines, inshore reefs, muddy flats, a coral reef,
rocky cliffs and parts including some of the very limited mangrove areas.
An effort was made to ensure that the representation of the main types
of habitat was proportional.

The total shoreline of Barrow Island, as measured on the map is
84 km. Beaches examined during the survey period total 28 km, i.e. one-
third of the whole.

CENSUS C. — ANALYSIS OF THE MARITIME BIRD SURVEY

The total number of birds of each species seen in all counts—21 —
was multiplied by three (the fraction of the shoreline examined being one-
third of the whole) to give a total population figure. The results arc sum¬
marised in the following table.

103

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c c
o o
o o

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+ +
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Q) CO
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0 <

1.1?
■S’*"5 «

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coco ’-O’- ’-co o- co r-cnco o-co coco r-co cm ^ co cocnino-’-

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CO O'

c -Q

CM ’—co CM m

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COcn’-05 CO

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in cm co

CO CM

co r-~ t-t-cmt-

in CD

•’f

CM CM »— ’—

CMUVM-

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CM ’-

WAPET CAMP

— north.

Aug-

CM CM

COCO

Tf CM

WAPET CAMP

•M-

—south.

Aug.

Surf Point

h» CO

Beach.

AU9-

CM CM

Turtle Bay

Aug

CM CM

Cliffs near

Cape Malouet.

Aug

Cliffs near

site 62.

Aug-

CO r-

r»

f'-

CM ’—

Ampol Creek.

Aug-

CO co

Town Point

Aug

T “

■M"

CM CO CM

Donald

Aug

T ” T_

T ”

■M-

'4-050’—■M- in

’-CM

■O’ *—

■M-

River

Aug-

WAPET Landing

Aug

>-COCM

CM CM ’— CO

T-r^-co

Tea Tree Beach

Aug-

■M-

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■M-

Whites Beach.

Aug-

T—

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■M -

Flacourt Bay

Aug-

’— 1 CM

’-CM

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1 and two adjacent

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Aug>

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Aug

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Biggara Creek

Aug-

'Carretti'

Aug-

t- m co

O CM CM

CM O’ CM

CM CM

CO t-

t- r~- co

Beach

Aug-

104

FURTHER OBSERVATION ON BEACHES

As indicated, survey counts of maritime birds were cut off on August
13 as it was felt that at this season migrants would be moving in, distorting
any generalizations made from a more extended survey.

No further work was projected, though it was not ruled out. In
the event, persistent winds during the period August 23 to August 26
made work on terrestrial birds largely futile, so time was spent on some
of the more sheltered beaches. Ultimately, not only was the whole shore¬
line seen from a helicopter but practically the whole was inspected from
the ground.

Observations made at this period suggest that a migratory movement
was in progress: birds in transition plumage were not uncommon and
some species not recorded earlier, or recorded only in small numbers,
were encountered fairly frequently.

Initially the term ’‘beaches” was used to embrace the whole shoreline
and typical stretches were examined to give a proportional representation
of sand, reefs, cliffs and mangroves.

In view of the later observations an elaboration may be desirable.

Cliffs

These are mainly on the central part of the west coast where they
comprise 28% (9 km) of this coastline. As remarked by Serventy et til,
(1971, p. 13): “Australian sea birds have not exploited the cliff-nesting
niches,” and this cliff area supports little bird life other than oystercatchers
and Reef Herons on wave-cut platforms, and Kestrels, Ospreys and White-
breasted Sea-Eagles on the cliffs.

Coral Reefs

The main coral reef, at Turtle Bay, appears to attract few individual
birds but several species of waders and sea-birds were noted.

Sandy Beaches

These are visited by gulls and terns and a few waders, e.g. Red-capped
Dotterel.

Inshore Reefs

These make up a high proportion of the shore line and are attractive
to almost all of the shore birds. The reefs on the east and south coasts
collect a certain amount of alluvial mud and are especially attractive to
birds and, indeed, other forms of life, upon which they probably prey.
Mangroves appear in association with these reefs.

Mangroves

There are several small stands of mangroves, Avicennia, the most
consequential near Stokes Point and at the mouth of Donald River, a tidal
creek, but even these are quite small. Some mud persists at Donald River
and in a limited area at Stokes Point, but generally sand has accumulated
and it would seem that these are declining communities. Small populations
of molluscs associated with mangroves were noted, viz: Terebralia sulcata ,
T. palustris and Mela raphe sea bra.

Although I have considered the Mangroves as a niche of the littoral
zone, it is also linked to the Triodia habitat in that it provides perching
and nesting resources for certain birds of the Triodia association.

Limited as the mangroves are, they appear to have some significance
in relation to the avifauna e.g.,

Mangrove Heron appear to be tied to this habitat.

Yellow Silver-eye when they appear on the island frequent mangrove
trees.

Red-backed Sea-Eagles nest in the mangroves, though not exclusively.

White-breasted Wood-Swallows appear to favour mangrove areas
though they arc widely distributed on the island.

Sacred Kingfisher though also not restricted to the mangroves, appears
to favour these areas and would probably be rare on the island if man¬
groves were not present.

105

OFF-SHORE ISLETS

As it was practicable to visit only two of the islands adjacent to
Barrow Island, it has been deemed desirable to deal with these separately
from the main island. Both were visited on August 19.

DOUBLE ISLAND

Birds noted were:

Wedge-tailed Shearwater.

Pied Cormorant: There appeared to be c. 60 on or about the island.

Reef Heron: Two grey-phase birds were noted in flight and a single
bird—possibly one of the two—was seen on a shore reef.

Osprey: Two adults were present about a nest on the rocky cliff
top towards the north end of the southern portion of the island. This
nest contained a very young chick and two eggs. A number of ants were
crawling over the chick but it did not seem distressed.

Black-shouldered Kite: Three birds, all apparently adult were seen
perched on a clump of Ficus.

Pied Oystercatchcr: Three were present, mainly in the area between
the two sections of the island. W.H.B. found a nest with egg.

Sooty Oystercatchcr: Two seen, close to the fore-going.

Silver Gull: The few present were scattered and the number hard to
assess—perhaps 20 in all.

Caspian Tern: Two present.

Bar-shouldered Dove: Two were seen near a thicket of Acacia coriacea ,
but W.H.B. reported a flock of 18 and other small groups—perhaps 40
in all.

Spinifcx-bird: Located in the larger Triodia clumps.

Singing Honeyeater: Noted. The birds seem to show some preference
for the thicket mentioned in the note on Bar-shouldered Dove.

MUSHROOM ISLAND

Pied Cormorant.

Reef Heron: One noted in flight.

Osprey: One in flight over island.

Silver Gull: A few scattered birds were present. The eastern part of
the island appears to have been the site of a rookery if one can judge
by the general appearance and the bones and feathers present. Little cover
remains, so the area may no longer be used.

Caspian Tern: Two adults and two chicks noted.

Fairy Tern: Nesting colony observed. See species list.

Crested Tern: One: lemon-yellow bill noted.

Bar-shouldered Dove: Noted.

Welcome Swallow: Two seen singly.

Singing Honeyeater: One seen.

OTHER MAJOR HABITATS

The Triodia and the littoral areas having been covered, two major
areas remain—the claypans and the sandhills.

Claypans

There is a claypan in the north of the island and four claypans in
the south. Except for a few small ephemeral pools following a shower
these were dry at the time of the investigation and were covered with
dry Agrostis (spp.).

Triodia does not invade the claypans.

Not surprisingly, Australian Pipits favour these areas and we noted
Zebra Finches at temporary pools on August 16 following rain on the
previous day.

W.H.B. has noted that after rain has flooded the claypans, water-
frequenting birds move in temporarily.

The Sandhills

The sandhills appear to lack a specialized avifauna, the species present
being an extension of the Triodia association. However, W.H.B. points

106

out that this area is important as both a feeding and a nesting area,
notably for Bar-shouldered Doves. The Acacia coriacea thickets provide
perching and foraging areas for the doves and Black-and-white Wrens
in particular and calling points for territorial Spinifcx-birds. The sand¬
hills appear to be favoured by foraging Accipitriformes. The nesting of
Ospreys in this area has already been recorded.

THE FUTURE OF BARROW ISLAND

The question of guarding national parks and fauna reserves from
outside pressures, c.g. the pressures of private enterprise and of ‘public
interest’, is beyond the scope of this report but is one which governments
and people need to consider urgently. It is doubtful whether we can
afford not to examine our natural resources and carefully plan and control
land usage. The setting aside of adequate areas for recreation, flora and
fauna reserves and wilderness areas in a wide range of habitats would be
part of such a plan. With sound planning the chance of conflict between
legitimate interests would be reduced to a minimum.

In the meantime, l concur with the views expressed in an unpublished
report “Formal Report on Conservation and Industry, Barrow Island
Oilfield” by W. H. Butler, 1970, and quote:

"At no time should the example of Barrow Island and WAPET be regarded as a
precedent for such alienation ori the mainland as a mainland end result would be very
different from the one obtained on Barrow Island. All islands have certain advantages:
There are no weeds so that soil disturbance does not result in a complete change
in vegetative components as on the mainland. Similarly no animal predators or com¬
petitors can invade from the outside. Perhaps as important as those two facts Is that
the mining company on the Island has complete control of all human access, a state
not possible on the mainland. In addition Barrow has an advantage over other islands
in its size. A similar operation on a smaller island could have disastrous results. Finally
as compared to major disturbances under more extensive mining operations, it must be
realized that oil drilling comes in the category of intensive mining which may use large
areas with minimal disturbance.”

I have one reservation. Butler states: “All islands have certain
advantages ...” a statement which he proceeds to justify. I would add
“And all islands have disadvantages”.

James Greenway (1967, p. 7) summarizes the bird species which have
become extinct in fairly recent times. Of 42 species only two were contin¬
ental species (both North American). The remainder were island popula¬
tions.

Butler’s report emphasises the need to conserve the flora of the
island with particular attention to the dominant Triodia spp.

If the safeguards which are at present being implemented are cons¬
cientiously maintained 1 see little danger to the avifauna of the island.
The requirements of all forms of vertebrate fauna appear to be quite
similar.

It is to be hoped that when the oilfield is worked out, the island with
its splendid potential as a conservation reserve will be upgraded and
managed to provide maximum protection of the fauna, and of the flora
upon which the fauna depends absolutely, and that the island will be
preserved as a unique unit in our national heritage.

REFERENCES

BURBIDGE, A. A., and A. R. MAIN. 1969. Report on a Visit of

Inspection to Barrow Island November, 1969. Department of Fisheries

and Fauna, Report 8.

BUTLER. W. H. 1970. A summary of the Vertebrate Fauna of Barrow

Island, W.A. W. Aust. Nat., 11 (7): 149-160.

BUTLER, W. H. 1975. Additions to the Fauna of Barrow Island, W.A.

W. Aust. Nat., 13 (4): 78-80.

BUTLER, W. H. 1975a. Barrow Island. W.A. Petroleum Pty. Ltd., Perth.
FISHER, James, 1947. Bird Recognition, vol. 1. Penguin.

GREENWAY, J. C., Jr. 1967. Extinct and Vanishing Birds of the World.

Dover.

HAVILAND, M. D. 1926. Forest, Steppe and Tundra. Cambridge Uni¬
versity Press.

107

SCHODDE, R. 1975. Interim List of Australian Songbirds — Passerines.

R.A.O.U.

SERVENTY, D. L., and A. J. MARSHALL. 1964. A Natural History

Reconnaissance of Barrow and Montebello Islands, 1958. Tech. Paper

No. 6, CSIRO Div. Wildl. Res.

SERVENTY, D. L., and H. M. WHITTELL. 1976. Birds of Western

Australia. 5th edn. Univ. of W.A. Press, Nedlands.

WHITLOCK, F. L. 1918. Notes on North-western Birds. Emu, 17 (4):

166-179.

WHITLOCK, F. L. 1919. Notes on Birds Breeding in Dampier Archipelago,

N.W. Coast of Australia. Emu, 18 (4): 240-253.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was sponsored by the Western Australian Wildlife Authority
and financed by West Australian Petroleum Pty. Ltd. which provided
generous facilities and every assistance that could be desired.

I have already made reference to the invaluable assistance rendered
by Mr. W. H. Butler on Barrow Island and in reaffirming this would
also add that he read most of the draft report and provided valuable
criticism and additional information.

I am indebted to the Western Australian Herbarium for assisting
with plant identifications; to Dr. G. Storr of the Western Australian
Museum, and staff, for advice, for confirmation of identifications of bird
remains collected and for information relating to Barrow Island specimens
held by the Museum; to my son Mr. L. E. Sedgwick for consultation
and very considerable assistance with the analysis of survey results; to
Dr. D. L. Servcnty for preliminary discussions; to Barrow Island Super¬
intendent, Mr. Lock Horsborough and his assistant. Mr. Ted Ingram, for
hospitality and co-operation; to Mr. Davis, Island Meteorologist, for detailed
weather "reports for the period of observance; and to Mrs. K. McKay
who has converted my rugged draft into a neat and legible document.

I am indebted to Mr. W. A. Rea, of the CSIRO Division of Mathematical
Statistics, Perth, for reading an earlier draft of this paper and cognizance
has been taken of his comments.

POSTSCRIPT

In my Barrow Island study I have confined my observations to my
subject—the avifauna, and this applies to my remarks on the future of
Barrow Island in the post oil extraction period. However, it has been
demonstrated that the island has an important and spectacular mammalian
fauna and a reptilian fauna rich in individuals and species, Butler, W. Aust.
Nat., 11 (7): 149-160 and 13 (4): 78-80; Smith, W. Aust. Nat., 13 (6): 125-
136. The marine fauna is perhaps no less important: the coral reefs, for
example, though not extensive are of splendid quality.

The introduction to the Australian section of The World Wildlife
Guide, 1971, edited by Malcolm Ross Macdonald, Threshold Books,
London, was written by Elspeth Huxley, who makes these points (among
others):

(1) “Conservationists face a number of problems unique to Australia.
The continent has few ‘natural’ wildlife parks—isolated swamps, inacces¬
sible jungles, remote mountains and tablelands—so that every wildlife
area is created in potential competition with other land users.”

(2) “ . . . there are such human factors as the country’s jealously
guarded state autonomy . . .”

(3) “The idea of a large national park system is only beginning to
catch on in Australia. Many of them are aimed more at recreation than
conservation.”

When the time comes, wildlife conservationists will need to anticipate
pressures to convert Barrow Island into another tourist resort with all
facilities and amenities and to ensure that the island’s economy is not
disturbed by development and over-use. Utilized predominantly as a recrea¬
tion area, the island could easily lose its insular advantages and the flora
and fauna suffer the fate of that of so many of the world’s islands.

108

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14

March 30, 1979

No. 5

LONG-TOED STINTS, SANDERLING AND OTHER WADERS AT
LAKE VIOLET, CENTRAL W.A. IN MIDSUMMER 1977-78.

By PETER J. CURRY, Kelmscott
INTRODUCTION

Lake Violet is a small ephemeral brackish lakebed under 5 km 2 in
area which is situated about 6 km SE of Wiluna, at the northern end of
Lake Way. Receiving a mean annual rainfall of about 8 in., the lakebed
is dry for most of the year and since nearby goldmining operations ceased,
it generally bears surface water only very transiently. The shoreline of
the lake is thinly vegetated with various halophytes, mainly dwarf sam¬
phires and glassworts (Chcnopodiaceae) and is backed by low dunes and
shrublands. After a rainless spring season, on December 22-23, 1977,
thunderstorms brought widespread rainfall to the region, with 33 mm being
recorded at Wiluna Emu Station some 12 km NE of Lake Violet. When
I visited the locality on December 31, the lakebed had filled to a depth
of a few inches, though already the shoreline was receding due to evapora¬
tion. Between this date and January 11, 1978, 1 visited Lake Violet on
six dates. Among many migratory or nomadic water birds present during
the period, the appearance of the following 10 species of northern waders
was particularly interesting.

THE SPECIES

Sanderling, Calidris alba

One in company with about 100 Red-capped Dotterels, Charadrius
riificapillus and two Red-necked Stints, Calidris ruficollis at the western
end of the lake, on December 31.

A small, dumpy Calidris, obviously a shade larger than accompanying
stints and plovers, showing a white head, dark carpal patch, pure white
underparts and pale grey back with an obscurely scaly pattern of paler
feather edgings. The bill appeared straight and black, longer than those
of the stints. As the flock moved out to feed, the Sanderling ran very fast
along the sands before taking flight to show a broad, white wingstripe on
a dark wing. As it flew out to the cast, loud ‘pwit-pwit’ calls were given.
It was not seen subsequently.

Red-necked Stint, Calidris ruficollis

Two present on December 31 were not seen subsequently.

Long-toed Stint, Calidris subminuta
Three stints with conspicuously dark backs were found near dusk on
January 2. From their obviously dusky appearance and rather strong
flight calls (noted as ‘chrrt’), 1 suspected subminuta rather than ruficollis,
though the views 1 obtained were unsatisfactory. I did not locate any
stints subsequently until January 7, though later findings suggested that
Long-toed Stints were probably present throughout the period, but avoided
detection by remaining concealed amid flooded vegetation. On January 7,
I located five Long-toed Stints feeding inconspicuously in shallows around

109

110

Fig. 1.—Stints at Lake Violet. The left two are Red-necked, Calidris
ruficollis; the right three are Long-toed, C. subminuta , including adult
with bi-coloured bill (lower right).

the edge of flooded samphires. On January 8, no less than 10 were present,
now wading well away from the vegetated shore-line as the water level
continued to drop. On the open water, they were the most wary of the
various waders present, and no matter how I tried to stalk them across
the lake, they invariably worked themselves around to the far side of the
large group of Red-capped Dotterels w r ith which they associated. On January
11, numbers had declined to four, which were associating with Pectoral
and Sharp-tailed Sandpipers, C. melanotos and C. acuminata, far out in
the middle of the lakebed. Detailed field notes were made on these
stints, from which the following points arose:

1. Size about that of ruficollis —though none present for comparison.

2. Shape somewhat different from ruficollis, looking fairly attenuated
on the ground, but rather short-winged in flight.

3. Horizontal stance, combined with the dusky markings on the sides
of the breast, recalled Temminck’s Stint, C. temminckii, though other
plumage features and the rather too steady gait of these birds dictated
against that species.

4. The tone of the back feathering was the most conspicuous plumage
feature of all the birds. This appeared very dark in the mid-dorsal region
(particularly on rear view) and the wing-coverts showed extensive dark
grey-brown centres and narrow buff edges. The overall effect was of
stints with a back coloration even darker than that of a nearby Pectoral
Sandpiper. Since winter (southern summer) ruficollis normally show pale
greyish-brown backs with narrow mesal (central) streaks, the difference
in the field is considerable. One bird, perhaps an adult, showed a panel
of wing-coverts broadly edged with bright chestnut, recalling descriptions
of similar feathering on Western Sandpipers, C. maurii.

5. Head and frontal patterns were distinctive, at long range looking
more dusky, lacking the white-faced appearance of ruficollis. Dark feathers
in the crown extended to the base of the bill, or virtually so. Narrow off-
white supercilia did not fork over the eye and were edged lower by
brownish lores and ear-coverts. Napes grey-brown. Smudges of grey-brown
on the sides of the upper breast were more extensive than those of ruficollis
in non-breeding plumages, in some individuals almost forming a breast-
band.

6. Remainder of underparts white, though not as clean looking as
a nearby Pectoral Sandpiper’s belly feathering.

7. Bill patterns varied individually. Four of the birds seen well showed
bills estimated to be around the length typical of ruficollis, though appear¬
ing minutely downcurved with lesser expansions at base and tip than are
typical of that species. Another individual has an arresting bill pattern,
quite unlike anything 1 had encountered previously on a small wader. The
bill was perceptibly longer than its companions’, slender and droop-tipped
(again recalling descriptions of maurii in N. America), but uniformly blue-
grey along its basal 70-80%, the tip being blackish. Wallace (1974) makes
reference to the bi-coloured bill of some adult subminuta as a unique
character amongst the seven species of stints.

8. Leg-length relative to body-length appeared to be similar, or
slightly longer, than for ruficollis. Tarsi not habitually flexed to any extent.
A crouched gait is said to be a character of the closely allied Least
Sandpiper, C. minutilla (Wallace, loc. cit.). Leg colour of each of the
Long-toed Stints seen well at Lake Violet appeared between greenish
through dark olive to greyish. None seemed notably yellow-toned, and in
the prevailing viewing conditions of bright sunshine above glassy water,
legs appeared quite dark at distances from which the legs of a Pectoral
Sandpiper were obviously yellow. At no time was a good view obtained of
the toes on grounded birds, since they were always immersed when stand¬
ing. At take-off, legs and feet looked longish for a stint.

Ill

9. The flight pattern was striking, the upperparts looking very dark,
and a narrow whitish wing-bar contrasted against dark wings on each bird.
Although much less extensive than the normal extent of white wing-bar
(or stripe) on ruficollis, it was quite easy to see on a good view. Eckert
(1962) noted an ‘absence of a white wing bar’ on breeding-plumaged sub*
minuta in South Australia; likewise Condon & McGill (1970) state there
is no wing bar in flight. Wallace, however, describes ‘a thin, diffuse,
whitish wing-bar, made obvious only by dark plumage’. It seems likely
that the extent of the wing-bar varies, but is always narrower than that
shown by ruficollis. The tail pattern shown by birds at Lake Violet com
sisted of white sides to black rumps and dark tail-feathers.

10. Flight fast and erratic, looking short-winged and dumpy-bodied.

11. Alarm notes on take-off were noted as ‘chee-chee’ and contact
notes in flight rendered ‘chrrt’, quite distinct from the softer calls (such as
‘pip-swip’) of ruficollis.

Pectoral Sandpiper, C. melanotos
One, undergoing conspicuous wing-moult, flushed from flooded sam-
phires on January 2, called ‘kreet-kreet’ as it flew off with a Wood Sand'
piper, Tringa glareola. It was still present on January 11. Its main differ¬
ences from Sharp-tailed Sandpiper were, when compared directly: bright
yellow legs; slightly more slender appearance; a densely flecked brown
breast ending in a sharp demarcation; unmarked white belly; longer bill
with yellow at base; rather darker, warmer-toned upperparts; different calls.

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, C. acuminata

One January 7-11.

Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola

One, January 2-3.

Greenshank, Tringa nebularia

Six, December 31; eight January 2-5.

Oriental Dotterel, Charadrius veredus

One, January 7; three on 8th and one, January 11.

Lesser Golden Plover, Pluvialis dominica

One, January 2-11.

Oriental Pratincole, Glareola maldivarum

One, January 7; two on 8th.

DISCUSSION

The species composition and their relative lengths of stay at Lake
Violet were somewhat unexpected. Previously in 1977, the only northern
waders I had encountered around Wiluna were Common Sandpipers,
Tringa hypoleucos. None appeared at Lake Violet in midsummer, nor
did I find any Curlew Sandpipers, C. ferruginea. Only one Sharp-tailed
Sandpiper appeared, and two Red-necked Stints were seen on one date
only. Thus the northern waders most commonly encountered inland in
southern Australia were poorly represented, with the exception of Green-
shanks. A gathering of up to 10 Long-toed Stints may be exceptional in
Western Australia, where the species has been regarded as rare, or pre¬
sumably so (Servcnty & Whittcll, 1976), with a relatively high incidence
of inland occurrences being reflected from the Murchison to the eastern
states. Mid to late summer records are the rule, though the largest gathering
yet recorded of the species in Australia occurred in April, 12 at Lang-
horne’s Creek, South Australia (Eckert, 1962). There must be a strong

112

likelihood that most go unnoticed, finding their feeding requirements at
ephemeral inland waters following summer rains.

The occurrence of a Sanderling at Lake Violet is evidently the first
to be reported from the Australian interior, the only other inland record
that I know of being one (specimen) from Mildura, Victoria (Wheeler,
1967). These occurrences are not altogether unexpected, since theoretical
migration routes to the southern beaches traverse the continent. Elsewhere,
migrating Sanderlings have been found at various sites in the interior of
East Africa (Moreau, 1972) and West Africa south of the Sahara (Sayer,
pers. comm.)

REFERENCES

CONDON, H. T. and McGILL, A. R. 1970. Field guide to the waders. 5th
ed. Melbourne.

ECKERT, J. 1962. The Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta. A new record
for South Australia. Emu, 62: 125-128.

MOREAU, R. E. 1972. The Palaearctic-African bird migration systems.
London and New York.

SERVENTY, D. L. and H. M. WH1TTELL. 1976. Birds of Western Aus¬
tralia. 5th ed. Perth.

WALLACE, D. I. M. 1974. Field identification of small species in the
genus Calidris. Brit. Birds, 67: 1-17.

WHEELER, W.R. 1967. A Handlist of the birds of Victoria. Melbourne.

A RUFF, PHILOMACHUS PUGNAX, AT BIBRA LAKE, JUNE 1978.

By PETER J. CURRY, Kelmscott.

On June 18, 1978, I was watching an assemblage of wading birds
which had been attracted to the recently replenished shallows of Bibra
Lake. Amongst many Pied Stilts Himantopus himantopus, Banded Stilts
Cladorhynchus leucocephalus and Red-ncckcd Avocets Recurvirostra novae-
hollandiae were a group of five Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa and,
on the south-western shoreline, a single much smaller wader. With lOx
binoculars, at about 300 m range, the wader appeared to be basically bright
orange-buff in colour, with very obvious long, bright yellow legs. I
approached gradually and was then able to watch the bird for over an
hour as it foraged both on dry mud and in the water. 1 was able to identify
it as a Ruff, chiefly through past familiarity with the species overseas.
Its size suggested that it was a female (Reeve), male Ruffs being consid¬
erably larger birds. Aware of the species’ evident rarity in W.A., I took
notes and sketches of the bird and later informed Dr S. J. J. F. Davies,
Regional Organiser of the R.A.O.U. Atlas scheme. Two days later it was
still present, though I could not locate it on subsequent visits.

DESCRIPTION

Size, shape and actions: — Considerably smaller than nearby Pied
Stilts, estimated to be about the size of a Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, Calidris
acuminata, but with much longer neck and legs. Head small, held high
when walking. Neck long and tapering from the body w'ith distinctive
shoulderless, rather bottle-shaped, appearance. Body slim, wings long and
tending to ‘cloak’ the tail. Gait a steady walk, more like a large Tringa
than a small Calidris sandpiper. Fed with deliberate probes and pecks both
in the water and on dry land, where it foraged among dead waterside
plants, craning its neck and bill upwards to peck for food items above
its own height. Flew briefly with slow, stiff wingbeats. No calls heard.

Plumage and soft parts: — Head, neck and upper breast basically
bright buff coloured. Fine grey-brown streaking on crown and small
dark mark through inconspicuous eye. Buffish supercilium. Breast buffish

113

Fig. 1.—Ruff, Philomachus pugnax, at Bibra Lake, June 1978. Note
slender form, alert stance, long legs, pattern of back feathering and extent
of white in flight.

with grey suffusion and irregular small dark markings, shading to white
on belly and undertail coverts. Back feathering well-marked orange-buff
with large blackish feather centres. Tertials conspicuously ‘notched’ black
and yellow, recalling Lesser Golden Plover, Pluvialis dotninica. In flight,
narrow white wing-bar, well-marked from back to mid-wing and probably
more conspicuous than on any Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. Rump and tail sides
white with *a dark central stripe and dark rectrices. Bill fine and dark,
about length of head and virtually straight or minutely declined. Legs
and feet brilliant yellow, with a faint pink tinge at close range. Length of
leg just longer than maximum depth of body, the toes clearly projecting
beyond the tail in flight.

DISCUSSION

Ruffs or Reeves are evidently very uncommon throughout Australia.
Serventy and Whittcll (1976) cited only two known occurrences in W.A.,
at Hamelin Pool and the Lower King River. Most Australian records have
been in summer and I know of no other in mid-winter. This occurrence
followed an increased number of reports of northern waders wintering in
south-western W*.A. in 1978 (S. J. J. F. Davies, pers. comm.).

Whilst male Ruffs in breeding plumage are utterly unlike any other
species of wader, females, immatures and non-breeding males are very
variable in appearance, size and habitat. Non-breeding birds may be
encountered from newly-ploughed fields to seashores in Europe, and from
freshwater marshes, lakeshores and paddyfields to dry plains in Africa
and Asia. Winter plumaged birds seen during the southern summer tend
to be grey-brown and rather featureless, with legs almost any colour though
grey, green, yellow, orange or red. The bright, fresh plumage lacking head
adornments as shown by the Bibra bird suggested it to be at least a second

114

summer (i.e. southern winter) or even adult-plumaged Reeve. Confusion
in Australia is most likely with Sharp-tailed or Pectoral Sandpipers, C.
melanotos, from which Ruffs and Reeves are identifiable by a longer-
necked stance, longer legs, more elegant gait, more slender bill shape,
more extensive white sides to the tail and different calls (though often
silent). A very buffy Reeve could be confused with the rarer Buff-breasted
Sandpiper, Tryngites subruficollis, if the observer was familiar with neither
species, though the latter has a quite different shape and actions and a
plain uppertail pattern.

AN UNUSUAL METHOD OF SPOIL DISPOSAL DURING BURROW
EXCAVATION BY THE TRAPDOOR SPIDER AN!DIOPS V1LLOSUS

(RAINBOW).

By BARBARA YORK MAIN, Zoology Department, University of
Western Australia, Nedlands.

Maintenance and deepening of burrows by trapdoor spiders of the
family Ctenizidae is a seasonal activity stimulated by heavy rain which
soaks into the soil and renders it malleable. In southwestern Australia
such activity generally coincides with autumn rains which break the char¬
acteristic summer drought. Some species, notably adults of Anidiops vil-
losus, occasionally take advantage of the favourable conditions following
spasmodic summer thunderstorms to deepen their burrows. Most species
deposit the excavated soil in loose piles that form a lunette in front of
the burrow entrance (Fig. 1). Individual loads are dumped by the spider

Figure 1.—Lunette arrangement of dumped soil from deepened bur¬
row; this is the typical method of disposal by most aganippine trapdoor
spiders.

which ejects the front of the body from under the half-opened door while
it retains a ‘toe-hold’ on the burrow rim. However Anidiops villosus
deposits spoil in long mounds immediately behind the hinge-line of the
door (Fig. 2 and Plate 1). Piles of excavated soil may be up to 16.0 cm
long and several centimetres high and wide .

Anidiops villosus like many other aganippine species, attaches indi¬
vidual twigs with silk to the rim of the burrow entrance in a radial or
fan-like arrangement (Rainbow, 1914; Main, 1952 and Plate 1). These
twig-lines function as sensory lines for the detection of prey moving across
the litter (Main, 1957a,b). The twig-lines of Anidiops obviously present
a mechanical difficulty in flipping or pushing soil out of the entrance.
Further, soil dumped on or even near the twig-lines would interfere with
the foraging activity of the spider and to carry spoil across the fan of

115

Plate 1.—Nest of Anidiops villosus showing pile of excavated soil
behind door; note that the spoil does not foul the foraging area of the
fan of twig-lines.

twigs and behind the door would expose the spider to predation. Both
difficulties are avoided by the spider which deposits spoil without ever
leaving the burrow.

The spider makes a hole in the burrow wall beneath the door hinge
and progressively digs a tunnel behind the door (Fig. 2). Excavated spoil
from the bottom of the burrow and the stripped walls is pushed to the
surface through this tunnel. The overburden of spoil forms the lengthening
roof of the tunnel as it is extended to take successive loads of soil. When
burrow deepening and wall maintenance is completed the spider plugs the
perforated wall with soil and seals it over with fresh silk.

Figure 2.—Profile of burrow entrance of Anidiops villosus showing
(a) pile of spoil, (b) hole in burrow wall beneath hinge (c) disposal tunnel.

116

Fresh spoil dumps are very conspicuous. However after rain the mound
collapses into the now internally closed tunnel and the area behind the
door is thus flattened.

For many years I had observed the soil mounds behind Anidiops ’
nests of various sizes but had not been able to ascertain how the spider
dumped the soil in this seemingly awkward site. This unusual method of
disposing of the burrow spoil was first observed in adult spiders in the
1977 autumn at a study site on the North Bungulla Fauna and Flora
Reserve (see Main, 1978). By lifting the door the tunnel opening is
readily seen. Intrigued with the apparent ingenuity of the method I then
examined the interior of nests of recently established juvenile spiders.
Once a new burrow is deep enough to contain a spider it attaches a door
and twig lines. Deepening of the burrow and deposition of spoil through
the “back door” tunnel proceeds just as in adult nests.

Although such spiders never leave the nest while dumping spoil they
are still vulnerable to predation. Surface movement of the spoil heaps
during dumping activities could be discernible to birds, e.g. quail and
ground birds which feed on insects amongst the litter. On July 17, 1978
I noticed two nests of emergents which had the tunnels freshly damaged
and exposed. In one the roof of the tunnel had been dragged off exposing
the middle section of the tunnel which appeared as a channel or trough
in the soil. In the other nest the door and rim of twigs and the whole pile
of spoil appeared to have been torn off in one bundle and dumped over
the distal end of the tunnel. This was on a damp morning following two
days of rain which had promoted fresh digging activities amongst the
whole population.

My own observations and records (Main, 1957a,b, 1976, 1978) and
those of Gray (1968) have shown that twig-lining by trapdoor spiders
is an adaptation to semi-arid habitats where prey, consisting primarily
of ants and litter foraging termites, is only seasonally abundant and/or
concentrated in particular sites. The habit has been adopted by many
aganippine species, some of which have populations of both twig-lining
and non-twig-lining spiders. Others such as the Idiosoma species and
Anidiops villosus are obligatory twig-liners.

I have on rare occasions noticed a partial opening beneath the hinge
in the burrow walls of some Aganippe spiders, but generally aganippine
species appear to deposit spoil in front of the nest.

However it would be interesting to observe whether any other species
have developed the “backdoor” disposal method. Such observations could
help to suggest the antiquity or otherwise of the twig-lining adaptation and
hence the relative degree of desert adaptation in the various species.

REFERENCES

GRAY, M. R. 1968. Trapdoor spiders’ adaptions to aridity. M.Sc. Thesis.
University of Western Australia Library.

MAIN, B. Y. 1952. Notes on the genus Idiosoma, a supposedly rare
Western Australian trap-door spider. [Vest. Austr. Nat., 3 (6): 130-137.

MAIN, B. Y. 1957a. Adaptive radiation of trapdoor spiders. Austr. Mas.
Mag., 12 (5): 160-163.

MAIN, B. Y. 1957b. Biology of aganippine trapdoor spiders (Mygalomor-
phae: Ctenizidae). Austr. Journ. Zool., 5 (4): 402-473.

MAIN, B. Y. 1976. Spiders. (Collins, Sydney).

MAIN, B. Y. 1978. Biology of the arid-adapted Australian trapdoor spider
Anidiops villosus (Rainbow). Bull. Brit. Arachn., 4 (4): 161-175.

RAINBOW, W. J. 1914. Studies in Australian Araneidae. No. 6. The
Terretelariac. Rec. Austr. Mus., 10 (8): 187-270.

117

THE OCCURRENCE OF BREEDING ROSEATE TERN, STERNA
DOUG ALU, AT LANCELIN ISLAND, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By J. N. DUNLOP, The School of Environmental and Life Sciences,
Murdoch University, Murdoch.

INTRODUCTION

The Roseate Tern is a species representative of the tropical (Dam-
pierian) seabird fauna. Recent observations indicate that the species is
extending its breeding range southward along the west coast of Australia.
This is a trend which has already been pre-empted by two other seabirds
of tropical origin, the Bridled Tern, Sterna anaetheta and the Red-tailed
Tropic-bird, Phaethon rubricaudus (Servcnty, D.L. el aL, 1971).

Until recently the Abrolhos group of islands were held to be the
Roseate Tern’s southernmost nesting locality. In April 1960 a nesting colony
of this species was discovered at the Green Islets, thus extending south¬
ward the southern limit of the breeding range (Servcnty and Whittell,
1976). The investigations of Ford (1965) on the avifauna of the islands
between Lancelin and Dongara established a number of additional breeding
stations between the Green Islets and Dongara.

Spring and autumn nesting has been recorded in the range bounded
by the Abrolhos in the north and Green Islets in the south. A double
nesting is reported from the Abrolhos (Servcnty et al., 1971) and from
the Green Islets and Whittell Island (Ford, 1965). Autumn nesting alone
has been recorded from Cervantes and Fisherman Island and only spring
nesting from Buller and Beagle Island (Ford, 1965). This nesting regime
suggests that there are both spring and autumn breeding populations of
the Roseate Tern within the region. This species, in particular, has a
tendency to shift its nesting location from one year to the next and a
number of alternative stations may be used by a given nesting group
(Servcnty et al., 1971).

OBSERVATIONS

Prior records of the Roseate Tern at Lancelin Island consist of two
sequel observations. The first was of eight birds in nuptial plumage flying
around the island on November 18, 1962 and the second was of two birds
in flight on December 30 of the same year (Ford, 1965).

On November 22, 1975 the author discovered the species nesting on
the island. There were two distinct colonies. One was located on the plateau
in the north-western part of the island and overlooked the western beach,
the second was located on the periphery of the southern plateau on the
crown of aeolianite cliffs over-looking the ocean. The colonies were
linear, the unevenly spaced nests being confined to the narrow, bare
travertine lip of the limestone plateaux. An irregularity in the micro¬
topography of the cliff top partitioned the southern colony into two nesting
groups. Behind each colony, towards the interior of the plateaux, stands
of the mat shrub Frankenia pauciflora served to conceal the nesting birds.

The northern colony consisted of from 30 to 35 nesting pairs and
the two groups making up the southern concentration each numbered
approximately 20 nesting pairs. All nests in both northern and southern
colonies contained eggs (i.e. no nestlings were evident). One and two-egg
clutches were common and one clutch of three was noted in the southern
colony (this clutch may have included an egg from another nest). The
eggs were a pale green ground colour with irregular, bold dark brown
blotches sometimes aggregated to form crescents and lines. Lighter brown
and grey shadow markings were also evident. The markings on the egg
of the Roseate Tern were noticeably bolder and larger than the flecks
on the egg of the Bridled Tern, a species which was nesting at the same
time.

118

Simple nests were constructed in shallow recesses in the limestone or
placed on shelves in the rock. A scrape would be excavated where there
was a shallow soil. In some situations the scrape or natural recess was
left unlined, in others nesting materials had been utilised. One scrape on
a limestone shelf was studied closely. It was lined with radially oriented
woody twigs of Nitraria schoberi and Lavatera plebiae and its walls were
bolstered, on the sides where the ground sloped away, by a collection of
materials including shell fragments, limestone pebbles and the dead
pliable stems of Gasoul crystallinum. Many nests were poorly lined re¬
cesses surrounded by the carpeting annual growth of G. crystallinum.

The birds were extremely excitable and the author was cautious not
to prolong his investigations of the nesting colonies to the extent that
breeding success was endangered. A silent aerial ‘dread’ was observed.

On February 14, 1976 the author re-visited the island. Two adults in
eclipse and a fledgling were observed on the edge of the sandspit in the
south-eastern part of the island. An adult and fledgling were also observed
on the western side of the island (these may in fact have been the same
birds). When breeding the adults had black bills, red at the base. In the
eclipsing adults the bills had turned wholly red.

In the following spring, on November 6, 1976 two pairs in nuptial
plumage and displaying in paired courtship flight were observed. There
was however no evidence of the species having nested that spring when
the author surveyed the island on December 23, 1976. Nesting may have
been prevented by changes induced by the birds themselves. A profusion
of the succulent annual Gasoul crystallinum had occurred and the plant
now covered much of the previously denuded travertine lip. Nesting
materials introduced by the birds probably contributed a shallow soil
facilitating the invasion by the annual, the growth of which was further
stimulated by the guano accumulation.

In early December 1977 Rob Holmes of the University of Western
Australia observed a small breeding colony of Roseate Terns in the north¬
west corner of the island.

DISCUSSION

The observations indicate that Roseate Terns in breeding condition
are present by early November, probably with some regularity, in the
waters off Lancelin. When nesting occurs on the island laying commences
by about the middle of November. Laying synchrony was apparent both
within and between nesting groups. Thus, at Lancelin, the laying period
of the Roseate Tern probably slightly overlaps with the latter stages
of that of the Bridled Tern. The timing of breeding is consistent with that
of spring breeding populations at the Abrolhos Islands and probably also
with that of similar populations in the region between the Green Islets
and Dongara. It seems probable that the contingent of birds which nested
on Lancelin Island in 1975 originated from one of these populations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Dr. Ron Wooller for his helpful criticism of
this paper.

REFERENCES

FORD, Julian. 1975. The Avifauna of the Islands between Dongara and
Lancelin, Western Australia. Emu, 64 (3): 181-182.

SERVENTY, D. L., V. SERVENTY and J. WARHAM. 1975. The
handbook of Australian Seabirds. Reed. Pp. 21-33, 213-215.

SERVENTY, D. L., and H. M. WHITTELL. 1976. Birds of Western
Australia. U.W.A. Press, Pp. 240-241.

119

A NOTE ON POLYPORUS TUMULOSUS COOKE & MASSEE (FUNGI)
By *D. A. REID, tR. HILTON, *D. G. REID and tN. BRITTAN

Poly poms tunwlostis Cooke & Massee is a widely distributed polypore
in Australia, having been found in Western Australia, South Australia,
New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania. It is recognised by its
centrally stipitate, squat, terrestrial fruitbodics, which arise from a false
underground sclerotium (pseudosclerotium). The convex cap, 6-14 cm dianv,
is often slightly depressed at the centre, and of a whitish colour becoming
grey or greyish-brown, with a thin pellicle. The stocky stem, 1-6 cm high,
1.5-4.0 cm wide, originates from a false sclerotium of soil particles o»‘
sand grains bound together by the fungal mycelium. The pores, 3-5 per
mm, are whitish; the flesh, very soft and cottony, is also whitish and o*
very light weight.

Fruitbodics appear after fire has swept through forest areas and fob
lowing subsequent rain. Growth is extremely rapid and Cleland (1935)
records their appearance within a fortnight of burning. They may occur
singly or as scattered specimens over a few square metres.

An interesting observation on the pseudosclerotium of this fungus
was made on a collection in burnt Karri-Red Tingle (Eucalyptus diversh
color/E. jacksonii) forest near Walpole, Western Australia. In this instance
about 20 fruitbodies were seen in an area of about 3 metres square. After
careful excavation by one of us (D.G.R.) to a depth of approximately half
metre, it was found that instead of the expected globular pseudosclerotiurn
there was a complicated branched arrangement reminiscent of a root
system. However, owing to the effort and time which would have been
needed to effect a complete excavation, only a portion of the system was
uncovered, but it seems highly probable that it extended over the entire
area where fruitbodies were in evidence. The pseudosclcrotial material is

Fig. 1.—A group of six fruit bodies of P. tumulosus at Walpole, excavated
to show their common origin from a large branching pseudosclerotium.

*Kew. England. tUniversity of Western Australia.

120

extremely heavy—a small portion 12x7x6cm weighed 450 grams when
completely dry.

The microstructure of P. tumulosus is dimitic, consisting of scanty,
thin-walled, hyaline generative hyphae, 3.0-4.5 /im wide, with clamp-
connections and very abundant skeletal hyphae up to 5.5 /im wide, which
taper at either end to about 2 /im. The skelctals, which are highly refractive
in both KOH and Mclzcr’s solution, are only occasionally branched. The
spores, 7.0-11.0 x 3.0-3.5 pm (measured from a spore-print of a specimen
collected by T. D. Macfarlane (No 113), north-west of Pemberton, Western
Australia, May 17, 1975) arc thin-walled, hyaline and narrowly elliptic to
subcylindric.

Fig. 2.—Spores of Polyporus tumulosus. x 666.

Cunningham (1965) described the hyphal structure differently. He
indicated that the flesh was formed of densely intertwined hyphae, and
interpreted the thick-walled refractive hyphae as freely branched binding
hyphae. No evidence for such an interpretation was found in any of the
specimens examined. Indeed a remarkable feature of the tissue of the cap
is that when placed in 10% KOH it dissociates very readily on wetting
and scarcely any dissection is necessary to distinguish individual hyphae.

One of us (D.A.R.) acknowledges with gratitude an Australian Bio¬
logical Resources Study grant.

REFERENCES:

CLELAND, J. B. 1935. Toadstools and Mushrooms and other larger fungi
of South Australia. Part 2. Government Printer, S. Australia. 1976
reprint.

CUNNINGHAM, G. H. 1965. Polyporaceae of New Zealand. Government
Printer, Wellington.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE RED-AND-
BLACK SPIDER, NICODAMUS BICOLOR (THERIIDAE)

By ROBERT S. BROWNE, 134 Johnston Road, Parkerville

The following account records observations made between June 15,
1976 and August 24, 1977, on the web, food, mating behaviour, egg-
laying and time of development of captive individuals of the Red-and-
Black Spider, Nicodamus bicolor. Five specimens were collected at Gidgie-
ganup in the Avon Valley on June 15, 1976. They were found under flakes
of rock on an outcrop beside a stream. Only a female survived after having
eaten the other four. On August 7 a male and female were collected from
the same site. These three were kept together in a glass terrarium (30 x 15
x 22 cm) with a glass divider leaning against one end. By mid-August one
of the females had been eaten, leaving a pair, the subject of this article.

Appearance of the spiders: They are small. At maturity the body length
of both sexes is 12 mm. The legs of the female are 16 mm and of the
male 22 mm. They are red with a black tarsus. The abdomen is globular,
black, hairy and glossy. The spinnerets and anal tubercle and the imme¬
diate area around them are red, and situated at the extreme tip of the

121

abdomen, not on the ventral surface as in most spiders. The male ha$
slightly more prominent spinnerets than the female. The cephalothoraX
is also bright red and the palps are red with black tips, long and with a
pronounced black tarsus in the male.

The Web: In the field webs of this species generally can be seen to
consist of a tangle supporting an irregular sheet beneath which the spider
lives. However in captivity, as is often the case with web-weaving spiders,
the complete and normal web is not constructed. In the case of the
spiders in my terrarium very little web was constructed before the mating
period, only a small tangle on the roof of the cage. The spiders hung
mostly upside down in this, occasionally roaming in its vicinity. At mating
time the female constructed a large tangle web in the triangle formed by
the glass side of the terrarium and inclined divider. In the centre of this,
one small area, approximately 25 mm square, was used consistently for
mating purposes. As each successive act added more silk to the thick
tangle it appeared like thick cotton wool after a while. At no time did the
web appear to have any definite form. All the food is well wrapped in
silk before eating and the packages stored neatly in one corner of the
cage floor.

Food: Flies mainly, together with moths and other small insects. The
spiders were especially partial to black aphids on a citrus branch but were
not very keen on beetles.

Behaviour: At first the two spiders, male and female, kept to each
end of the terrarium, occasionally roaming within their own territories.
On October 20, 1976, the female moulted. After this she made occasional
visits to the male's territory but made no attempt to capture him for food.
On November 15 the male moulted. Physical changes were marked. The
legs became very long, almost twice the length of the female's. The book
lungs appeared very swollen as did the black palps. During the week the
female paid many visits as though inviting him to her corner of the ter¬
rarium. The male eventually followed. Mating was first noted on November
21 and it lasted over one hour. Subsequent matings, of about five minutes
duration, were noted on November 25 and infrequently until December
6, on which day they took place repeatedly for 15 minutes between one
hour intervals. No subsequent mating was noticed.

Muling technique: The male approaches the female face to face,
climbs over her back and then slips sideways to underneath so that their
ventral surfaces face and their heads are in opposite directions. The palps
are inserted singly as a rule but sometimes together. There was no resistance
by the female and she did not have to be held by the male. No particular
position in the web was maintained (i.c. horizontal, vertical, etc.). Some
mating advances were made by the female which approached the male on
the outer web and returned with him to the mating web. During the whole
period the pair remained together in the same web and appeared to be
a very affectionate couple, frequently “holding hands”. No attempt was
made by the female to attack the male, though she often collided with
him when in pursuit of other prey. Although the female is quite hungry
at this time the male eats little, but drinks a great deal.

Sperm induction: The male passes his abdomen across a small pebble
on the floor of the cage (the same one each time). The sperm is then
transferred to his palps. Most activity occurs at night.

Post-mating behaviour and the end of the male: Between December
7 and 16 all mating ceased and the male was ignored by the female,
although an accidental touch from her caused him to vibrate rapidly. After
December 16 the female seemed irritable and pushed him away whenever
he went near her. The female killed and partly ate the male on December
19, but wrapped very little silk around him, putting the body separate
from the other food in store. From then on she began to swell and was
very hungry. When quite heavy she ceased chasing her prey as actively

122

as before. Her web was then almost a sheet on about a 60° angle to the
floor. She sat upside down in the middle with her legs holding each side
of the web and swung it backwards and forwards, causing any insect in
the web to flutter and entangle itself, while at the same time signalling
its position to the spider. In this way she used up less energy in her heavy
state. On December 30 she started collecting the food from her store and
stringing the packages with some leaf litter to the web. The male’s body
was not used.

Egg-laying: On February 1, 1977 the female laid her eggs in a bag
of silk while suspended from her usual position in her web. These were
reddish-brown, about the size of a pin head and lesembled fish roe. She
then completed the cocoon by covering the top with silk, forming a
round, fluffy ball of it. Egg-laying and completion of the cocoon took
24 hours, with frequent resting pauses. The temperature that day was
36.4° C maximum, and 20° C minimum. After laying her eggs the female
did not eat or drink, ignored easy prey, and sat holding her cocoon pro¬
tectively. This was not easy as it was much bigger than she was, being
1.3 cm in diameter.

On February 23 the eggs hatched, after an incubation period of 22
days. The temperature at the time was 25° C. The young were identical
in appearance to the parent spider. The mother did not cannibalize her
young, which stayed within the silken outer cover of the egg sack.

The mother died on February 25. The babies stayed near the egg
sack for the following few days and ate their mother. Their growth rate
was very slow.

On March 9 the young started dispersing. They began eating the
“packages” and later they ate the male parent and some small aphids.

The terrarium was moved to an outside shed on April 14 and the
growth rate of the young spiders increased. They became diurnal and
all retreated to the web around the egg sack about 5 p.m. There are about
50 young now and still no cannibalism has been noted. The food comprises
mainly small aphids and small moths.

On August 24 the young appeared to be only half grown, suggesting
a possible maturing period of more than 12 months.

A NEW RECORD OF ASPLEN1UM OBTUSATUM

FORST. F. VAR. OBTUSATUM IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
By G. G. SMITH, Botany Department, University of Western Australia

The Shore Spleen wort, Asplenium obtusatum Forst. f. var. obtusatum,
is a fern inhabiting maritime cliffs of southern temperate and sub-antarctic
regions. Its distribution includes extra-tropical South America (S.W. Chile
and Juan Fernandez I.), Pacific islands. Kermadec I., New Zealand (North
and South Is.), Three Kings and Stewart I„ Chatham I., Antipodes I.,
Auckland I., Campbell 1,, southern Australia, and Tristan da Cunha and
Gough I., to the south west of South Africa.

In Australia this species has been recorded from sea cliffs in Queens¬
land, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South-Western Australia.
It has not been recorded from South Africa, as one might expect, consid¬
ering the latitude of the Cape Peninsula. Taylor (1955) did not record
it from Macquarie 1., although he recorded Blechnum penna-marina Kuhn.,
Polystichum vest it u m Presl and Poly podium hi Hardier i R.Br.—three ferns
of southern temperate and sub-antarctic regions, one or other of which
has been recorded as associated with Asplenium obtusatum over its cir¬
cumpolar distribution.

This hardy fern inhabits shallow soil of clefts and shelves of sea
cliffs, usually in sites high above the sea and exposed to salt-laden winds.

123

The stout stipes and the leathery texture of the pinnae of the fronds are
adaptations to maritime conditions of persistent cyclic salt and strong winds.
This sort of xeromorphism commonly occurs in coastal shrub species the
closer the plants come to the littoral. A similar xeromorphism occurs in
the northern hemisphere counter-part of this fern, Asplenium marinum L.
(Sea Spleenwort), which occurs on sea cliffs of the British Isles, and
western Europe, extending eastwards very locally to southern Italy (Tutin
et al., 1964).

The first record of Asplenium obtusatum in Western Australia was a
collection made by George Maxwell in 1866 from a cliff site on Breaksea
Island in King George Sound. His specimen, in the National Herbarium
of Victoria, was determined by Ferdinand von Mueller as Asplenium
marinum var. obtusum F. Mueller (Mueller, 1866).

The celebrated ornithologist, A. J. Cambell F.L.S., visiting Western
Australia in 1890 to report upon natural history, landed on Breaksea Island
with a friend and wrote of Asplenium obtusatum as follows {Ike Austra¬
lasian, no 1249, vol XLVII (Melbourne), March 8, 1890): “The light-
keepers informed us of a rare fern, the like they had never seen before.
We eagerly desired to see it, but our ardour was somewhat damped when
we were told that we would have to dangle over the mouth of a yawning
cavern, and be lowered by a rope about 40 ft. over the weather side of
the island. From what we can learn the fern grows in small patches about
2 ft. to 3 ft. high, in cool, shady places among cleft rocks which hold turf
and decomposing, disintegrating granite. Fortunately I was presented with
a fruiting frond by Pilot Butcher, who has the plant in cultivation. It
proved to be the Asplenium marinum of botanists, and upon the authority
of Baron von Mueller, K.C.M.G., new to Western Australia although
previously recorded for Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queens¬
land, as well as other extra-Australian localities.”

In 1975 a colleague of the author. Dr Ian Abbott was collecting the
flora of the islands off the south and south-west coast and participated in
a detailed biological survey of Chatham Island west-southwest of Walpole,
Western Australia. The author asked him to search for Asplenium obtu¬
satum.

Dr Abbott collected extensively the floras of Breaksea, Eclipse,

Fig. 1.—Distal portion (ventral view) of a frond of Asplenium obtusatum
from a plant at Chatham I., South-Western Australia.

124

Michaelmas, Chatham, and other small islands, but found the Spleenwort
only on Chatham Island. Two small clumps «lm 2 area) were found at
the south end of the island, the first in the lee of granite-gneiss boulders
about 180 m above sea level, the second in a valley about 100 m above
sea level. Both clumps were exposed to south-westerly winds (Abbott and
Watson, 1978). The species may still occur on Breaksea I., because its
occurrence there in 1890 as described by Campbell above may have been
overlooked by Dr Abbott, who was collecting alone on the island and
did not therefore have the opportunity to lower himself 40 feet down the
southern side of the island.

Dr Abbott’s collection of fronds, the tallest of which is 37 cm, is held
in the Herbarium of the Botany Department, University of Western Aus¬
tralia, and a duplicate in the Western Australian Herbarium.

The author would welcome further collections of this species from
our coast. It very likely inhabits cliffs of the mainland as well as those
of the islands, be it only sparsely.

In view of the apparent rarity of this species on our coast, it is
suggested collectors take only a single frond from a plant and press to
dryness in newspaper as soon as possible.

Asplenium obtiisatum is readily recognisable by its stout, erect, rigid,
oncc-pinnate fronds up to ±40 cm long, arising from a shortly creeping,
clumped rhizome. Stipes green. Lamina with 2-8 or more pairs of pinnae.
Pinnae thick and almost cartilaginous, prominently stalked, ±4.5 cm long,
±1.5 cm broad, the pinnae margins coarsely toothed and slightly thickened
below. Apices of pinnae acute or broadly rounded, never finely attenuated.
Sori oblong. Indusia oblong, elongated along the veins (Fig. 1.).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author appreciates the assistance given him by Dr lan Abbott,
then of the Department of Zoology, University of W.A., in searching for
and collecting the Spleenwort, also for providing the reference to this
fern in The Australasian newspaper, and for reading the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ABBOTT, L, & J. R. WATSON. 1978. The soils, flora, vegetation and
vertebrate fauna of Chatham Island, Western Australia. J. R. Soc.
W. Aust., 60: 65-70.

ALLAN, H. H. 1961. Flora of New Zealand. Vol. 1. (Govt. Printer: Wel¬
lington).

GODLEY, E. J. 1960. The botany of southern Chile in relation to New Zea¬
land and the sub-antarctic. Proc. R. Soc. Lond., Ser. B. 152: 457-475.
MUELLER, F. 1866. Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. Vol. 5, pp. 111-
142. (Govt. Printer: Melbourne.)

SMITH, G. G. 1966. A census of Pteridophyta of Western Australia.
J. R. Soc. W. A us/., 49: 1-12.

TAYLOR, B. W. 1955. The Flora, Vegetation and Soils of Macquarie Is¬
land. A.N.A.R.E. Reports, Series B, Vol. 11. Botany.

TINDALE, M. D. Pteridophyta & Bipinnate Acacias. In Beadle, N.C.W.

et al. Flora of the Sydney Region. A. H. & A. W. Reed; Sydney.
TRYON, A. F. 1966. Origin of the Fern Flora of Tristan da Cunha.
Brit. Fern. Gaz, 9: 269-276.

WACE, N. M. 1960. The botany of the southern oceanic islands. Proc.
R. Soc. Lond., Ser. B. 152: 475-490.

WACE, N. M. 1961. The vegetation of Gough Island. Ecol. Monogr., 31:
337-367.

WACE, N. M. & M. W. HOLDGATE. 1958. The vegetation of Tristan da
Cunha. J. Ecol., 46: 593-620.

TUTIN, T. G. et al (Ed.) 1964. Flora Europaea, Vol. 1. Cambridge Univ.
Press: Cambridge.

125

POLLEN LOADS ON NEW HOLLAND HONEYEATERS AT QUALUP,
WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By ALLAN H. BURBIDGE, STEPHEN D. HOPPER- and DAVID J.
COATES, Botany Department, University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

ABSTRACT

The composition, quantity and placement of pollen collected from five mist-netted
New Holland Honeyeaters (Phylidonyrls novaehollandiae) at Qualup, near Bremer Bay.
in August 1977, was examined. Large amounts of Lambertia inermis pollen were found
on all birds, predominantly in crown samples. Substantial quantities of Banksia coccinea
and Dryandra cuneata pollen were found in beak samples, together with smaller quan¬
tities of Eucalyptus preissiana and E. buprestium grains. These observations suggest
that New Holland Honeyeaters are effective poller, vectors and probable pollinators of
several flowering plant species at Qualup.

INTRODUCTION

Although it is well known that honey-eating birds feed on and pos¬
sibly pollinate Australian flowering plants, with the single exception of
Paton and Ford’s (1977) South Australian study, the identity, quantity
and placement of pollen on honeyeaters has not been critically examined.
Yet the demonstration that honeyeaters do actually transport the pollen
of species on which they feed is central to any proposal that these birds
are effective pollinators.

In the course of a study on interspecific hybridization between mallee
eucalypts in the Fitzgerald River National Park (Hopper et al., 1978), we
mist-netted honeyeaters to determine whether they were carrying pollen
of the eucalypt species under investigation. In the present publication we
list all species of plants whose pollen was found on these honeyeaters,
and briefly discuss the implications of our results in terms of pollination.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mist-nets were set up from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. on August 17, 1977 in
some open mallee heath 2 km N.E. of Qualup homestead (34°15’S, 119°
25’E) in the south-western sector of Fitzgerald River National Park. The
study area was on a gradual hillslope to the east of the Gairdner River
gorge. The vegetation was growing on sandy loam soil. Dominant species
included Lambertia inermis and several mallee eucalypts (Eucalyptus tet-
ragona, E. buprestium, E. decipiens and E. preissiana). Scattered individuals
of Banksia coccinea and Hakea victoriae were also present.

Pollen was collected from netted birds by stroking the beak, forehead
and crown feathers with a small brush over a glass slide covered with a
thin veneer of vaseline. Separate slides were used for beak and crown
samples. Similar preparations were also made for known individuals of
likely bird-pollinated species in flower in the neighbourhood, including
Lambertia inermis, Dryandra cuneata, Eucalyptus pressiana, E. buprestium,
Banksia coccinea, Calothamnus quadrijidus and Qualup Bells (Pimclea
physodes).

Maximum length and structural features of pollen grains of the known
species were determined under a microscope using a micrometer eyepiece.
Pollen samples collected from birds were then classified to species and
the relative proportions of different grains determined from the total
present on the slide.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Pollen of all flowering species sampled in the study area and collected
from honeyeaters was readily distinguishable on the basis of shape and/or
size (Table 1). Even pollen grains of the two Eucalyptus species were
identifiable in the majority of cases.

‘Present address: Western Australian Wildlife Research Centre, Department of Fisheries
and Wildlife, P.O. Box 51, Wanneroo. W.A 6065.

126

TABLE 1.—SHAPE AND SIZE OF IDENTIFIABLE POLLEN CARRIED ON NEW HOLLAND
HONEYEATERS AT QUALUP.

Plant species

Pollen shape

Pollen length

Lambertia inermis

triangular

63.1 - 76.2

Eucalyptus preissiana

triangular

25.9 - 33.7

Eucalyptus buprestium

triangular

21.9 - 27.7

Banksia coccinea

elliptical

60.9 - 75.8

Dryandra cuneata

elliptical

32.6 - 35.3

Five New Holland Honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) were
captured during the netting period, and all were found to be carrying pollen.
The largest loads were of Lanibertia inermis r Dryandra cuneatci and
Banksia coccinea (Table 2). A small percentage of Eucalyptus preissiana
and E. buprestium pollen was also found, as well as approximately seven
different kinds of grains which did not match any of the known species
sampled. No pollen grains of Qualup Bells (Pimelea physodes) were found
in any of the samples examined. This latter observation was somewhat
unexpected, since several Qualup Bells were flowering in the study area
and Keighery (1975) has reported observing Tawny-crowned Honeyeaters
(Phylidonyris melanops) feeding on the species in the Fitzgerald River
National Park. Our pollen counts suggest that New Holland Honeyeaters
fed on Qualup Bells very rarely (if at all) in the study area. Perhaps the
Bells are visited more frequently in areas where other bird-pollinated
plants are at a much lower density than those which occurred in our
netting site.

A clear difference in the proportions of Lanibertia, Dryandra,
Banksia and Eucalyptus pollen on beak and crown samples was found
with Lanibertia grains predominating in crown samples and the largest
number of Dryandra, Banksia and Eucalyptus grains occurring in beak
samples (Table 2). This difference agrees with the size and mechanical

TABLE 2.— PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
BEAK SAMPLES ON ONE NEW

OF POLLEN SAMPLED FROM CROWN AND
HOLLAND HONEYEATER AT QUALUP.

Species

% of total
Crown sample
(993*)

grains scored

Beak sample
(636*)

Lambertia inermis

98.8

28.0

Dryandra cuneata

0.1

37.3

Banksia coccinea

0.0

32.1

Eucalyptus preissiana

0.9

0.1

Eucalyptus buprestium

0.0

1.4

Unknowns

0.2

1.1

‘Total number scored.

relationships of the various flowers and the heads of New Holland Honey¬
eaters. The protostigma of Lanibertia inermis usually rubs against the
crown of a feeding honcyeatcr whereas the anthers of Dryandra, Banksia
and Eucalyptus reach only as far as the base of the beak (this is illustrated
for Eucalyptus in Hopper et al., 1978).

It is evident from the pollen loads that New Holland Honeyeaters
at Qualup are catholic in their choice of food plants, rather than species-
specific. This agrees with observations of opportunistic and indiscriminate
honcyeatcr foraging reported elsewhere, e.g. Paton and Ford (1977). How¬
ever, the precise feeding patterns adopted in the study area remain uncluci-
dated. It would be of interest to know how the honeyeaters partition their
time in feeding on the different species in flower. Other studies have shown
that honeyeaters may be extremely selective in their choice of food plants
at a given place and time, concentrating on the species providing the
greatest energy return and virtually ignoring other species in flower in

127

the neighbourhood (e.g. Hopper and Burbidge, 1978). If such preferential
behaviour was operative among the New Holland Honeyeaters at Qualup j
they would clearly constitute a powerful selective force on the phenology^
floral morphology and nectar secretion of plant species competing f 0r
pollinator service.

While the present study has established that New Holland Honeyeaters
do transport pollen of and probably pollinate several plant species at
Qualup, further research is needed to provide a satisfactory understanding
of the ecological interactions and evolutionary responses of participants
in this pollination system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the National Parks Board for granting permission
to work in the Fitzgerald River National Park, the Botany Department,
University of Western Australia for support during field work, and Dr s.
H. James for constructive criticism of the manuscript.

The project was undertaken while A.H.B. and D.J.C. were in receipt
of University of Western Australia Postgraduate Awards and while S.D.H.
was in receipt of a Commonwealth Postgraduate Research Award.

REFERENCES

HOPPER, S. D. and A. H. BURBIDGE, 1978. Assortative pollination by
Red Wattlcbirds in a hybrid population of Anigozanthos Labili.
(Haemodoraceae). Aust. J. Bot., 26: 335-50.

HOPPER, S. D., D. J. COATES and A. H. BURBIDGE, 1978. Natural
hybridization and morphometric relationships between three malice
eucalypts in the Fitzgerald River National Park, W.A. Aust. J. Bot.,

26: 319-34.

KEIGHERY, G. J., 1975. Parallel evolution of floral structures in Darwinia
(Myrtaceae) and Pimelea (Thymeleaccae). West. Aust. Nat., 13: 46-50.
PATON, D. C. and H. A. FORD, 1977. Pollination by birds of native
plants in South Australia. Emu, 77: 73-85.

OBSERVATIONS ON WIND-BLOWN SUPERPHOSPHATE IN
NATIVE VEGETATION

By B. G. MUIR, Western Australian Museum, Francis Street, Perth 6000.

INTRODUCTION

Vegetation on wheatbelt reserves is often seen to be taller and denser
adjacent to paddocks than is observed deeper into the reserve. On occa¬
sions this can be attributed to increased drainage from the adjacent farm¬
land but is also observed uphill from some paddocks. Muir (1977) records
an instance of increased foliage density, increased number of fruit, and
changes in floristics when fertilisers affect roadside vegetation. Stimulation
of growth rates after contact with fertiliser are also documented (Bradshaw
et al., 1964; Driesschc and Wareing, 1966). An uncertainty in many
observations is whether the phosphate enters the reserve or road verge as
windblown material or as a subsurface solution. The former was suspected
because phosphate movement in soil is very limited, particularly in light
sandy soil (Russell, 1961). Additionally, in many wheatbelt areas there
are strong north-westerly winds during the periods of ploughing and
fertiliser application, and at which times dust is likely to enter bushland.
Particles of fertiliser may be transported considerable distances at this
time. Observations of superphosphate particles undergoing saltational wind
transportation along a firebreak I km into a reserve from the nearest
cleared land have been made at Bendering Reserve (Muir, 1977).

This paper presents the results of two observations made on phosphate
levels in light sandy soils in the Wongan Hills area.

128

METHODS

Soil samples at site 1 were taken at 0-10 cm and 50-60 cm below the
litter layer: and 20, 10 and 5 m into the paddock from the edge of the
reserve, at the reserve edge and 2, 4, 7 and 10 m into the reserve (see
diagram 1 below).

Mortlock Creek Reserve

paddock

fence

12 O-IOcm
3 50-60cm

4- = trace

8 5 2

2 1 +

Figures are in mg/l P0 4

--1

10 m

Diagram 1.

At site 2 samples were at the same depths as site 1 but were taken
at the fenceline of the paddock, in the area of deepest windblown debris
(about 5 m into the reserve), and 25 m and 50 m into the reserve (see
diagram 2 below).

Dingo Rock Reserve

,fepce

/ wind piled <

0-10 cm
50-60cm

Figures are in mg^l P0 4

Diagram 2.

10m

Soil samples were homogenised, sieved to remove particles larger
than 2 mm and digested for 24 hours in 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate solu¬
tion adjusted to pH 8.5, at a rate of 1 gram of soil to 100 mis of solution.
Samples were then filtered and divided into two aliquots. Phosphate deter¬
minations were made on one aliquot using the ammonium molybdate/
ascorbic acid technique and the other, untreated aliquot as a blank. Levels
of phosphate were determined colorimctrically using a Bausch and Lomb
Mini-spec 20 spectrophotometer set at a wavelength of 700 nm.

OBSERVATIONS

Site 1. Sample area on the western boundary of Mortlock Creek
Flora Reserve (23313), ca 15 km NW of Wongan Hills townsite and shown
on Lands Department lithograph 57/80, C-D/2. The vegetation of the
reserve has been briefly described by Kenneally (1977) and by Muir (1978).
The portion studied was dominated mostly by Banksia prionotes trees 5 m
tall and 70-100% canopy cover whereas the same assemblage deeper into
the Reserve is shorter (3 m) and less dense (30-70% cover). The shrubby
understory is similarly affected. Soil in both areas is yellow (Munsell (1954)

129

code 10YR7/8), clayey sand. There is no horizon development and the
soil is well drained. The belt of vegetation affected is uphill and to the
east of cleared farmland and the denser marginal belt 5 m broad at the
point of examination.

Site 2. Sample area on the northern boundary of Dingo Rock Reserve
(13494), ca 21 km E of Wongan Hills townsite and shown on Lands Dep¬
artment lithograph 56/80, A/3. The vegetation of the reserve has been
briefly described by Muir (1978). At this site the vegetation was Casuarina
campestris shrubland 3 m tall, 10-30% canopy cover with an understory
of sedges and shrubs. The vegetation shows only slightly enhanced growth
on the boundary adjacent to the paddock but this may be because of the
distance from the paddock. Topography and position suggest superphosphate
would only be blown into the reserve on rare occasions. Such an occasion
occurred following Cyclone Alby (April 4, 1978) when large amounts of
topsoil and wheat stalks were blown into the Reserve and piled to 30 cm
deep against the vegetation. Soil at this site was brownish yellow' (10YR6/8),
sandy clay loam with no horizon development, and well drained. Soil
samples were taken 95 days after the cyclone. In the intervening period
79 mm of rain fell in the area.

DISCUSSION

Superphosphate particles have been observed undergoing saltation
movement up to 1 km into a reserve from the nearest source (Muir, 1977)
and this data suggests that it is commonly wind-blown into reserves for at
least several metres. The phosphate levels in the soil may be raised by up to
8 times their normal value (normal assumed to be < 1 mg/1 as determined
by this method). Changes in morphology, flowering, fruit production and
floristics have been observed as a result. Long term changes in the vege¬
tation as a result of this are inevitable, particularly on long, narrow re¬
serves with their long axis orientation approximately north-south, thus
increasing the target area for superphosphate particles carried on north¬
westerly winds.

There is very little vertical or subsurface lateral movement of dis¬
solved phosphate even when source paddocks received fertiliser for some
years. The effect of subsurface leaching into the reserves is thus likely
to be minimal in light soils similar to these. However, it must be noted
that Russell (1961) indicates subsurface movement in waterlogged soils
e.g. on drainage lines in heavy soil country, may be considerable. He
suggests this may be due to ferrous ions acting as transporting agents.
Such transportation may explain dense shrubby growth observed on some
drainage lines leading into reserves from adjacent farmland.

REFERENCES

BRADSHAW, A. D., M. J. CHADWICK, D. JOWETT and R. W. SNAY-
DON. 1964. Experimental investigations into the mineral nutrition of
several grass species. IV Nitrogen level. J. Ecol., 52: 665-676.
DRIESSCHE, R van den & P. F. WAREING. 1966. Nutrient supply,
dry matter production and nutrient uptake of forest tree seedlings.
Ann. Bot. (n.s.), 30: 657-672.

KENNEALLY, K. F. 1977. The Natural History of the Wongan Hills.

West Aust. Nat. Club. Hndbk. 11, pp. 51-73.

MUIR, B. G. 1977. Vegetation and habitat of Bendering Reserve. Biological
survey of the Western Australian whcatbelt. Part 2. Rec. West. Aust.
Mus., Sup pi. 3.

MUIR, B. G. 1978. Some nature reserves of the Western Australian wheat-
belt. Part 3: Wongan-Ballidu Shire. Perth: Dept. Fish. Wildl. Unpubl.
Rept.

MUNSELL COLOR COMPANY. 1954. Munsell soil color charts. Balti¬
more, Md., Munsell Color Co.

RUSSELL, E. J. 1961. Soil conditions and plant growth. London: Longman.

130

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

Nesting of Spotted Harrier near Northam.—In the paper, “Birds of
the Shire of Northam”, Emu, 74, 1974: 228-244, Masters and Milhinch
record the Spotted Harrier (Circus assimilis) as breeding south of Grass
Valley near Northam. As there does not seem to be very much published
about these birds breeding in this area it is thought desirable to give details
of a more recent nesting.

C. Richter has seen a pair of Spotted Harriers nesting on his farm
about 14 km S.E. of Northam a number of times during the last 10 years,
and on October 12, 1978 we both went to a nest he had found there. While
we were still some distance away a Spotted Harrier flew from the nest
which was about 12 m from the ground in a flooded gum (Eucalyptus
rudis). This was one of a group of such trees standing approximately 100 m
from the Mortlock River with other single trees scattered over a cleared
paddock with wheat crops nearby. The nest was not particularly bulky,
but rather flat, and made of sticks.

When we again visited the nest in company with P. Lettenmaier on
December 10, 1978 two adult birds were in the vicinity. All three of us
could see one young bird in the nest. Owing to harvesting commitments
we were not able to visit the nest again until C. Richter went to it on
January 2, 1979. He had seen the adult birds during the intervening time
whilst harvesting in a nearby paddock, but by January 2 they had left
the nest area.

—A. L. MILHINCH and C. M. RICHTER, Northam.

Southward Spread of White-backed Swallow on Swan Coastal Plain.—

In December 1902 A. W. Milligan (Emu, 3, 1903: 21) collected two
specimens of White-backed Swallow (Cheramoeca leucosterna) at Yanchep.
As late as 1948, D. L. Serventy (Emu, 47: 278) had no record of the
species from further south. From 1957 to 1964 J. R. Ford (West. Aust.
Nat., 10, 1965: 8) commonly observed it nesting between Guildcrton
and Yanchep, but he apparently did not see it south of Yanchep. In 1969
J. Sinagra (Fauna Bull. 3 (3), 1969: 49, Dept. Fisheries & Fauna) found
a few birds nesting in a sandpit near Wanneroo; they had frequented the
area for three years. On February 25, 1977 Andrew Chapman (pers. comm,
to G. M. Storr) was surprised to see them feeding over the sea about 3 km
off Swanbourne; he had not otherwise observed this species south of
Mullaloo.

From July 31 to August 4, 1978 I noted up to five White-backed
Swallows flying around a residual knob of crumbly calcareous sandstone
in the old quarry in McCabe Street, Mosman Park (now serving as a
sports ground). On August I 1 found a group of four tunnels in the west
face of the knob. A bird flew into one of them, which I excavated. Five
birds flew from the tunnel, which was unlined and clearly used only
for roosting.

Soon after this I recorded the species south of the Swan River. In
Gladstone Road, Lceming, the Melville Council is depositing rubbish in
a currently used sandpit. On August 8 and 9, 1978 four White-backed
Swallows were feeding here in the company of Welcome Swallows. On
November 11, 1978 I returned to the rubbish tip and found a nesting
tunnel in a metre-high cliff of sand above a loose slope of sand; it
contained four large young, which the parents continued to feed as soon
as I left.

I am grateful to Dr G. M. Storr, Western Australian Museum, for
particulars of earlier records of this swallow.

— N. KOLICH1S, Osborne Park.

131

First Record of Leach’s Storm-Petrel, Oceanodroma leucorhoa,
in Western AustraJia.—On Sunday morning, April 16, 1978 1 visited Pelican
Point. However instead of the array of waders I hoped to see I was
surprised to find a dead storm-petrel. It had been washed up on the
southern side of the Point and was lying on the sand midway between
the end of the Point and the parking area. It may have been a victim
of the aftermath of the unusual Cyclone Alby of April 4.

The remains were identified by Dr. D. L. Serventy and Dr. G. M.
Storr as Leach’s Storm-Petrel, Oceanodroma leucorhoa, belonging to the
nominate race of the North Atlantic and far north Pacific, which is
characterised by large size and all-white rump. The specimen was preserved
as a mummy, registered in the Western Australia Museum collections as
A15395.

The following measurements, in millimetres, were taken by Dr.
Serventy: wing, 160; tail, outermost feather 87, innermost 73; tarsus, 24.9;
middle toe and claw, 25; culmen, 15.8. The claws were sharp.

This is the first record of this northern hemisphere species from
Western Australia. The only previously recorded specimen from Australia
was a beach-washed bird found at Cutting in western Victoria in July
1965 and now in the National Museum, Melbourne. In New Zealand a
bird was found near Auckland in August 1922.

—LOLA BROADHURST, Beverley.

The Nest of the Western Bower-bird (Chlamydera guttata). —In Ser¬
venty and Whittell’s Birds of Western Australia it is stated that there is
only one published description of a nest of this species from Western
Australia, one found by F. Lawson Whitlock near Wiluna in 1909. Though
it is likely that other nests have since been found by naturalists it appears
that there arc still no published accounts since Whitlock’s description. To
remedy the situation, I describe three nests I found in the Cape Range
in August 1977, as these differ in material respects from Whitlock’s
Wiluna nest. The three nests were found in gullies in the range. Some
nests closely resembled Pied Butcher-bird nests.

(a) A loose shallow bowl made of dry vine tendrils and odd twigs,

projecting untidily from its base. The egg cavity was about 150 mm in

external diameter, 110 mm in internal diameter by c. 50 mm in depth.

This cavity was lined with odd stalks of Triodia and finer vine tendrils.
The two eggs were visible through the fabric when viewed from below.
The nest was built 2 m above the ground on a near horizontal three-

pronged fork of a fairly open Acacia. A bower, in use, was about 250 m

east of the nest site.

(b) A more firmly constructed bowl-shaped nest of fine dry Acacia
phyllodes and fine tendrils built on a foundation of eucalypt twigs, pro¬
jecting from the base and rising above the egg cavity. Its external diameter
was 170 mm, internal diameter 130 mm, and the depth c. 50 mm. The
nest was built in a Batswing Coral Tree (Erythrina vespertilio) slightly less
than 2 m above ground. It contained two eggs, not visible through the fab¬
ric. I searched for a bower but with no success.

(c) A neat bowl constructed entirely of dry vine tendrils within a
mass of growing creeper among the branches of a Bloodwood. External
diameter 130 mm, internal diameter of egg cavity 90 mm and with a
depth of 60 mm. It also contained two eggs. The nest was about 4 m above
ground. No bower was noticed and time prevented a closer search.

In each case old nests of previous seasons were seen in close proximity,
the furthest being about 50 m from the active nest. In one instance there
were 12 nests within a radius of 15 m.

—N. KOLICHIS, Osborne Park.

132

A Sighting of the Streaked Fantail-Warbler Cisticola juncidis
in Western Australia. —On October 28, 1978 while examining waterfowl
habitat on the flood plains of the Ord River, W.A. (15°35’S, 128°15’E)
I flushed several Fantail-Warblers from stands of the Saltmarsh Grass
Xerochloa imberbis ♦ Although adequate views were obtained of only one
bird the diagnostic tinkling plink-plink call was heard several times. Xeroch¬
loa imberbis is an important feature of the habitat of this Fantail-Warbler
in the areas that 1 have found them in the ‘top end’ of the Northern Ter¬
ritory. The Golden-headed Fantail-Warbler Cisticola exilis was not seen
on the Ord River flood plains although birds in nuptial plumage were
heard and seen commonly around Kununurra and Lake Argyle.

—JOHN L. McKEAN, CSIRO,
F. C. PYE Wildlife Research Laboratory, Darwin.

Omnivorous Tammars? —In May 1978 during the course of a research
project funded by the University of Western Australia on the Tammar
wallaby (Macropus eugenii) at Garden Island, Western Australia, an adult
Tammar was observed by us to actively pursue, capture, and eat a hawk-
moth (Family Sphingidae).

This observation was made at night, following a heavy shower of
rain and, at this time, a large number of both hawkmoths and Tammars
were seen in the area. The moths appeared to have difficulty flying as
many were struggling on the wet road. One moth flew a short distance
in front of our vehicle where an adult Tammar chased and caught it in
mid-air with its front paws. The Tammar then proceeded to eat the moth.

—J. A. BORTHWICK, R. A. LANGWORTHY and JOHN TURNER.

Three more Records of the Kerguelen Diving-Petrel in Western
Australia. —The first Australian record of the Kerguelen Diving-Petrel
(Pelecanoides exsul) was reported by Storr and Johnstone in 1976 (West.
Aust. Nat., 13: 145-146). There have been three subsequent records.

A recently dead specimen was found by Mr. M. Bailey on October
10. 1977 at Cervantes (180 km NNW of Perth). Details of the specimen,
which was prepared into a study skin CWAM registered number A15089),
are as follows: female (ovary, 7.0 x 3.5 mm); weight, 101 g; total length,
215 mm; entire culmen, 26 mm; bill width, 8.3 mm; length of wing, 127
mm; tail, 42 mm; tarsus, 27 mm; bill black, legs and feet blue with black
webs, head and upper back black, lower back and wings blackish-grey
with many feathers pale and worn at the ends, throat white, upper breast
band pale grey, rest of under parts white.

Only the head and neck (A 15818) remained of a dead bird collected
by Mr. R. Nash at Cable Beach near Albany on July 2, 1978. The entire
culmen measures 26.5 mm, width of bill 8.0 mm., and the few remaining
throat feathers arc mottled grey.

A decomposed specimen was found by Mr. A. Anderson at Pallinup
Beach (mouth of the Pallinup River, 110 km ENE of Albany) on Novem¬
ber 2, 1978. Details of the specimen, which was prepared into a complete
skeleton (A 15830), arc as follows: entire culmen, 29 mm; bill width, 8.3
mm; length of wing, 125 mm; tarsus, 25 mm. The feathers of the under
parts were still intact, and the bird had a good grey breast band. Mr.
Anderson noted the bill as black and the legs bright blue.

In the specimens of P. exsul so far collected in Western Australia
length of wing (124.5-127 mm) and tail (42-45) exceed the ranges (112-126
and 35-42) given by Bourne (1968, Bull. Br. Orn. Cl., 88: 77-88). They
are also greater than the ranges (118-121.5 and 35-40.5) given by R. C.
Murphy & F. Harper (1921, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 44: 495-554).
P. exsul breeds on many subantarctic islands, and the larger size of our
specimens may indicate that they are from a single and uncollected
breeding locality.

—R. E. JOHNSTONE, Western Australian Museum.

133

First Record of the Taipan for Western Australia.—On November 6 >
1978 I collected a Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) at 6 km WNW of Ama^
Camp, Mitchell Plateau, northwest Kimberley. The country here wa$
lateritic and carried a woodland savanna of Eucalyptus tetrodonta, E,
miniata and the palm Livistona eastonii. Previously this deadly snak^
was known from the Top End’ of the Northern Territory, northern anQ
eastern Queensland and New Guinea.

The specimen is now lodged in the Western Australian Museurrj
(registered number R60666). It is 136 cm long, including the 22 cm lon§
tail. The fangs arc very long and strongly curved. The dorsal scales ars
long, narrow, weakly ridged and in 23 rows at mid body. It has 2 -j- ^
temporals on one side and 2 + 3 on the other, 241 ventrals and 69 sub-
caudals; the anal is undivided. It is uniformly dark greyish brown above
and brownish white below.

— W. H. BUTLER. Wanneroo,

Second Record of European Common Tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo j
from Western Australia.—On July 21, 1978, after several days of stormy
weather, Mr. and Mrs. J. McLean found an exhausted tern on their farm
4 km south-east of Mctricup. They give it to Mr. B. Masters, the district
Fisheries and Wildlife Officer. The bird died soon after, and realising
that it was one of the rarer migratory terns Mr. Masters sent it to the
Western Australian Museum.

Details of the specimen (A 15670) are as follows: male (testes, 4.5 x
2 mm and 2.5 x 1.5 mm); weight, 95 g; total length. 310 mm; length of
wing, 240 mm; entire culmen, 48 mm; tarsus, 18 mm; tail, 99 mm; bill dark
red with a blackish tinge to the cutting edges of the upper and lower
mandibles near tip, legs red, forehead whitish speckled with black, rest
of cap black, upper tail white, under parts white with a greyish wash.

The red bill and white upper tail distinguish the European Common
Tern from the Eastern Common Tern (Sterna hirundo longipennis), which
has a black bill minutely tipped with horn and pale grey upper tail (dark
grey on outer edge of tail streamers). Length of tarsus and wing and the
colour of the second outer primary distinguish the Common Tern from
the very similar Arctic and Roseate Terns. In the Arctic and Common
Terns the under parts can be grey or white; whereas in the Roseate Tern
the under parts are always white.

The European Common Tern breeds in northern Europe and normally
only migrates as far south as southern Africa. Scrventy and Whittell (Birds
of Western Australia, 1976, p. 244), give details of the first Western
Australian specimen found at Coogee beach near Fremantle on January
7, 1956. The only other Australian specimen was found dead after gales
in Victoria in October 1968. The Eastern Common Tern breeds in north¬
eastern Asia and North America and is a common summer visitor to the
north-west coast of Western Australia.

—R. E. JOHNSTONE, Western Australian Museum.

Breeding Seabirds on Carnac Island, Western Australia.—While holi¬
daying in Western Australia in 1976, my wife and I visited Carnac Island
off Fremantle with our friend Jim Lane on September 10. In the time
available a fairly thorough check was made of as much of the island
as possible. Different types of habitats were carefully investigated for
breeding seabirds, particularly the burrowing species.

Silver Gulls (Larus novaehollandiae) were nesting extensively over
most of the island. Generally the nests contained eggs, but some were
ready for laying and others were under construction. An accurate estimate
of the number of breeding gulls was not made. However, the figure would
run into thousands of pairs.

134

While carrying out the survey, one gull was found hanging by the leg
and secured to a dead branch by a piece of fishing line. Apparently the
nylon fishing line had become attached to the bird’s foot and the line
had then become tangled in the dead branch. The bird was suspended
by the leg beneath the branch with its head a few centimetres above the
ground. In its efforts to escape, the bird’s leg had been broken at the
joint. Released from its bondage, its broken leg amputated and given a
drink, the bird was released and flew off strongly.

Pied Cormorants (Phalacrocorax varius) were nesting on the south¬
east corner of the island. There were about 500 recently-used nests and
five large “runners” nearby. After some effort on our part, two were
captured, banded and released. Ten nests, mostly along the low cliff edges,
contained smaller young, but these were not disturbed.

Little Penguins (Eudyptula minor) were found nesting immediately
at the back of the beach on the east side and a few along the centre of the
west side at the base of the limestone cliffs. Two burrows each contained
an adult incubating two eggs, one bird was in a burrow with two large,
well-developed young and seven other burrows contained birds but the
burrows were too deep to allow detailed investigation.

Wedge-tailed Shearwaters (Puffinus pacijicus), at the time of the visit,
would have been returning at night to prepare burrows for nesting. Some
30 burrows were found in a sandy patch about 40 m by about 40 m, near
the south-western side of the island. Two other burrows were found in a
similar but much smaller sandy area near the north-western end. All the
burrows were freshly scratched, with numerous feet marks of the birds
around the entrances and approaches. Most burrows were investigated but
were invariably too deep to check thoroughly without undue damage to
them. Even with the aid of a stick, the burrow ends could not be reached
in most instances. No birds were found.

We saw no sign of the few eggs and chicks of the Crested Tern (Sterna
bergii) or the large Caspian Tern (Hydroprogtte caspia) chick recorded by
I. Abbott (\V. A list. Nat., 13, 1977: 196-199) during his visit which was
a few days prior to ours.

The Sea-lions (Neophoca cinerea) on the beach and three Tiger Snakes
(Notechis sentatus) completed the wildlife recorded during the visit.

I am grateful to Jim Lane for making the visit possible and for
providing the transport.

—S. G. LANE, 65 Wood Street, Lane Cove, N.S.W.

A Disjunct Occurrence of Pilostyles on Two New Host Genera.—
Flowering specimens of the stem parasite Pilostyles hamiltonii C. A. Gardn.
(Rafflesiaceae) were collected growing on two previously unrecorded host
genera, viz. Gastrolobium and Oxylobium , whilst we were on a field trip
to the Stirling Range National Park, on January 20, 1978. Until then,
Pilostyles had only been recorded on Daviesia at Bannister, Boyagin,
Busselton, Eneabba, Mundaring and York, and on Jacksonia at Mt. Lesueur
(Smith. W. Aust. Nat., 2 (3), 1951: 21-24; B. Dell pers. comm.). The occur¬
rence of Pilostyles in the Stirling Range greatly extends its known geogra¬
phic range.

Pilostyles was collected during a climb up Bluff Knoll (34°22’S,
118°15’E). Ascent of this peak was made following the tourist track on
the northern slope. During the climb one of us (K.C.P.) collected a species
of Papilionaceae (later identified as Oxylobium atropurpureum) which we
recognised as being infected with the stem parasite Pilostyles. Following
this discovery further searching in the immediate area revealed a second
host which has been identified as an undescribed species of Gastrolobium.

135

The community in which the host plants were growing was a closed
mallee scrub dominated by Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) with a dense
undergrowth of Proteaceae, Papilionaceae and the occasional Xanthorrhoea
preissii (Fig. 1). The slope was severely burnt by a wildfire in April 1971
and the vegetation of the area can be regarded as regrowth following that
fire.

Fig. 1.—Closed mallee scrub dominated by Jarrah on the northern slope

of Bluff Knoll.

On October 8, 1978 a return trip was made to Bluff Knoll to collect
flowering voucher material of the host species. Voucher specimens for
all the new records cited above arc housed in the Western Australian Her¬
barium (PERTH) and annotated appropriately.

Preserved material has been forwarded to Dr. B. Dell, Murdoch
University who is conducting research into P.ilostyles.

—K. F. KENNEALLY, Western Australian Herbarium, and

—K. C. PIRKOPF, Nedlands.

CORRECTIONS

The authors of the paragraph on Malums elegans in W.A . Nat., 14:
79, have had their attention drawn to a paper by Mr. H. Webster (Emu,
47: 287-290) in which he described a nest of this species attended by two
males and two females. Further, Mr. Webster supported this with photo¬
graphs of two distinctly different males at the same nest, thereby pre¬
dating our record by thirty years.

—IAN ROWLEY.

In Mr. E. H. Sedgwick’s article on a population study of the Barrow
Island avifauna in the last issue (vol. 14, no. 4) there was an error in the
scientific name of the Little Grebe in the table at the top of p. 87. It should
read: Podiceps novaehollandiae.

136

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14

August 17, 1979

No. 6

A BAIRDS SANDPIPER CAUDRIS BAIRDII AT EYRE:

A NEW SPECIES FOR WESTERN AUSTRALIA
By PETER J. CURRY, Kelmscott

On March 7, 1979, I was driving west along the narrow sandy ocean
beach between Eyre and Twilight Cove (W.A.) during a wader survey from
Eyre Bird Observatory. The weather was calm, warm and sunny. While
stopped in order to watch a small group of Red-capped Dotterels Charad-
rius ruficapilli/s my eye was caught by the rear aspect of a small wader
which was standing in front of a small pile of seaweed. An unusually pat¬
terned scaly brown back failed to suggest any of the small waders common
in Australia. As I watched, the bird turned its head to show a brown face
and a black bill which was too long and slender to belong to a Red-necked
Stint Calidris rnficollis, but otherwise not long enough, or the wrong shape,
for other regular species of Calidris. Suddenly, it turned and ran rapidly

Fig. 1.—Two views of Baird's Sandpiper, drawn from sketches and
notes made in the field at Eyre on March 7, 1979. Note long, slender
profile, slender black bill and legs, densely streaked breast band, white
throat, head pattern like Pectoral Sandpiper, scaly upperparts, pale wing-
bars on closed wing and relative lengths of tcrtials, tail and primary points.
In flight note wing pattern and dark rump and tail.

137

a few metres down the beach, giving a clear view of itself from a ran^
of about 30 metres. It was obviously a stint-sized sandpiper, but one whi^h
showed an extraordinary combination of features and made my alarm belj$
ring.

It was of comparable size to a Red-capped Dotterel but of entirely
different structure, standing marginally shorter whilst being quite the mo^t
slender-bodied, long-winged small wader that I had ever seen. This, when
combined with the main features of plumage—strikingly brown upperpar^
(completely lacking in grey, blackish or reddish tones), brown breast, while
belly, brown head, white supercilium, slender bill and short black le^s
—failed to suggest anything familiar. Whilst the habitat and my first im¬
pressions of its actions were suggestive of a Sanderling C. alba, this bird's
long and low profile, extremely long wing points, bill shape and plumage
features were obviously quite wrong for that species in any plumage. Scru¬
tiny of the black feet revealed web-free toe junctions and an obvious hind
toe. Rapidly it all made sense, in that I could only be watching a Baird's
Sandpiper Calidris bairdii.

Over the following two hours I was able to watch the sandpiper for
about 90 minutes, at ranges down to within 20 metres and under ide^l
viewing conditions. At various times single immature Sanderling and Red¬
necked Stints also present approached within a metre of the Baird’s, provid¬
ing excellent direct comparisons which confirmed and emphasized my
earlier impressions. Detailed notes and sketches were made with the bird
in view. More careful pencil drawings were made on return to Eyre Ob¬
servatory before any reference was made to the literature.

The following description is a summary of my field notes, and direct
quotes arc indicated. At the time of the observations, I was aware that the
species’ known status in Australia was limited to perhaps two records from
the south-east.

HABITAT AND BEHAVIOUR

The sandpiper spent all of its time on the light coloured sand, mainly
around and just below the high tide mark. It was very actively seeking prey
around the small piles of tide-wrack, and ran into the water’s edge on
one occasion only, when I approached deliberately to sec if the bird would
show its vital flight pattern.

The gait was Sandcrling-like rather than stint-like, running in swift
bursts, but otherwise walking regularly and somewhat mechanically. Feedv
ing strategy was essentially by single and multiple pecks, at first appearing
erratic in direction (often delivered sideways) but actually aimed carefully
at rapidly-moving invertebrates caught in mid-air or on the surface of the
sand. It did not probe either under the sand or in the tide during the
period of observation, but it did probe into small piles of seaweed, where
it disturbed small hopping Crustacea and insects which were pursued and
caught with great agility.

On the beach the sandpiper made only one challenge with another
wader, a Sanderling which approached very closely as it fed. Interestingly,
the Sanderling gave way, despite its greater height and bulk, in response
to a very brief, low, threat posture given by the Baird’s.

When in flight, it joined a closely knit flock of other small waders,
displaying flight actions unremarkable for a small Calidris.

No call was heard from it at any time, though of waders present only
the calls of the Sanderling were clearly audible above the noise of the sea.

SIZE AND SHAPE

Intermediate in height between Red-necked Stint (R-nS) and Sander-
ling; girth of body just greater than R-nS and considerably less than San¬
derling. Legs slightly longer than R-nS and shorter than those of Sander¬
ling. Bill longer than R-nS, about same as Sanderling, “about four-fifths
length of head, all black, slightly expanded at base, otherwise narrow
and tapering, upper mandible virtually straight (but) decurved at tip,
lower mandible very slightly curving towards base. Obviously too long and

138

slender for either ruficollis or minuta, not long enough for mauri, alpina
or ferruginea. Legs about length of body depth (i.e. short in comparison
to overall length), with well-developed white ‘shorts’ below body. Hind toe
obvious, no trace of webbing between the toes when walking away along
line of vision. Legs and toes all black.”

Neck rather short; stance nearly horizontal, though rear half closer
to the ground. Body “spindle-shaped” and elegantly tapering towards the
tail. “Extreme attenuation of flight feathers made overall length about
4” longer than Sanderling.” Tip of tail fell well short of the primary tips
on the closed wing.

In flight “strikingly spindle-shaped slim body, very long sharply point¬
ed wings and comparatively long tail.”

PLUMAGE

“Astoundingly brown plumage, completely lacking pale grey tones,
very obvious when against Sanderling and even R-nS, which were grey and
grey-brown respectively.”

“Facial pattern like Pectoral Sandpiper, being brown with fine darker
streaking. Off-white supercilium from bill-base to ear coverts.” Spring-
plumagcd Sanderlings have a less distinct supercilium. “Brown cheeks,
strongly streaked crown, nape and upper back (dark striations in ‘lines’).
White throat obvious on front view. Whole of breast evenly brown streak¬
ed on a buff base, very like Pectoral’s breast pattern. Brown-streaked
breast ended abruptly on lower breast/abdomen. A median encroachment
of white belly feathering extending upwards into centre of breast markings,
giving a hint of central division to them. Belly and undertail coverts all
white.”

“Scapulars and wing feathering unlike any other Calidris I’ve seen.
Essentially brown with off-white edges, producing scaly effect. No dark
median streaks evident on any of the scapulars, wing coverts or tcrtials,
thus feathering unlike a stint’s. Median and greater (secondary) coverts
all tipped with off white, producing effect of two nearly vertical pale bars
on the rear half of the closed wing. Tertials very long, plain grey-brown.”
On the closed wing the tertials extended to a point marginally short of the
tail point (see sketches). “Primary points dark and very slender. No hint
of any chestnut feathering in upperparts.”

In flight “wings dark above, with narrow off-white wing-bar across
base of secondaries and showing along bases of at least most of the pri¬
maries, perhaps falling short of the outermost couple. Rump and tail very
dark” (thus eliminating the possibility of fuscicollis, the White-rumped
Sandpiper, which is considered the species closest to bairdii, though larger
and greyer). Tail tip very dark. “Small off-white patches on sides of rump,
relatively smaller in extent than on Pectoral S. (C. melanotos j.” A second
view of the flight pattern added “paler mid-wing” evident on the upper-
wing and also “underwing: dusky markings towards axillaries, darker under
primaries than R-nS.”

Overall the evenness of the light brown upperparts failed to suggest
that the bird was in fresh plumage. A rather featureless paler patch noted
on the mid-wing coverts, both on the ground and in flight, may have been
indicative of old, abraded feathering.

The sandpiper was not seen again, despite searches on subsequent
dates. Regular survey of the beach by John Martindale during March
and April suggested a high flux of waders, mainly Red-necked Stints and
Sanderlings, through the Nullarbor coast at this season.

There appear to be only three previous records of Baird’s Sandpipers
in Australia, each concerning single birds: the first at Lauderdale, Tas¬
mania (a specimen obtained on October 24, 1965: sec Milledge, 1968); an¬
other at Lake William, Victoria, on November 15, 1974 (Smith & Swind-
ley, 1975); and more recently a third record, made at Botany Bay, New
South Wales (Cook & Waugh, 1978).

139

Generally regarded as one of the Nearctic species of Calidris, bairdii
has a known breeding range through Arctic North America west to the
Chukotskiy Peninsula in N.E. Siberia. There is no known wintering area
in the Palaearctic or Oriental regions, so the Siberian birds must be pre-
sumed to migrate across the Bering Sea to winter in South America, as
does the bulk of the Nearctic population. If birds found in Australia are
of an easterly origin, then there may be an undiscovered passage of some
Siberian birds through eastern Asia. Alternative westerly origins for Austra-
lian birds are more awe-inspiring, with vagrants arriving through Europe
and southern Asia or otherwise by the southern oceans from South
America. Even this last course might not be impossible for a long-winged
wader which crosses the north Atlantic to western Europe nowadays with
annual regularity (Smith et al., 1972-77).

REFERENCES

COOK, J. E., and J. W. WAUGH 1978. A Baird’s Sandpiper at Botany
Bay, Australian Birds, 12: 32-36.

MILLEDGE, D. R. 1968. The first recorded occurrence of Baird’s Sand¬
piper Calidris bairdii (Coucs) in Australia. Emu, 68: 1-5.

SMITH, F. T. H., and R. J. SWINDLEY 1975. A Victorian Record of
Baird’s Sandpiper. Aust. Bird Watcher, 6: 35-39.

SMITH, F. R., and the Rarities Committee, 1972-77. Reports on rare birds
in Great Britain. Brit. Birds, 65-70.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIIEBA PISAN A ON
ROTTNEST ISLAND

By M. S. JOHNSON and R. BLACK, Department of Zoology, University
of Western Australia, Nedlands.

The Mediterranean snail, Theba pisana (Muller), was introduced on
Rottnest Island between 1925 and 1927, in the vicinity of the Settlement.
Surveys in 1936, 1947 and 1958 (Servcnty, 1949; Servenly and Storr, 1959)
documented the expansion of this colony, and the establishment of three
isolated colonies at the lighthouse. Cape Vlaming, and Stark Bay. We report
here the results of a fourth survey, made in June, September, and Decem¬
ber, 1978.

PRESENT DISTRIBUTION

The present distribution of Theba on the island is compared with that
in 1958 on the accompanying map, and the areas occupied by each colony
are shown in Table l. In the eastern zone, there has been virtually no
extension north of Lake Bagdad or south of Government House Lake. The
western edge of Point Clunc is now occupied, but this is not a recent
extension, as G. M. Storr found colonies there in November, 1959 (personal
communication). Between the lakes, there has been some westward expan¬
sion, and the eastern colonies arc now connected with those expanding from
the lighthouse. The area south of Gun Hill has many dead shells, but no
extant colonies, indicating colonisation and subsequent extinction. An
isolated colony at The Bluff is presumably a relict of that expansion.

TABLE 1.—AREAS (IN HECTARES) OCCUPIED BY THEBA PISANA ON ROTTNEST ISLAND
AT TIMES OF SURVEYS. DATA PRIOR TO 1978 ARE FROM SERVENTY AND STORR

(1959).

1936

1947

1958

1978

Eastern Zone

231

358

484

Lighthouse

—

152

Cape Vlaming

—

24 ( + 5)*

Stark Bay

—

* Colony at Marjorie Bay in parentheses.

140

The greatest expansion has been from the lighthouse. The occupied
area now extends to Pink Lake in the northeast, and Nancy Cove in the
southwest. Interestingly the limit of distribution immediately south of the
lighthouse has been stable for 20 years.

The colonies at Stark Bay and Cape Vlaming remain isolated. The
Stark Bay colony has continued to expand, but at Cape Vlaming the
snails have retracted westward, leaving an isolate at Marjorie Bay.

DETERMINANTS OF DISTRIBUTION

The most obvious potential determinants of the distribution of Theba
are suitability of the habitat, effects of fire, and dispersal of the snails.
Each of these help to explain the present distribution of Theba on Rottnest.

(a) Vegetation

Theba arc most common in stands of Acanthocarpus preissii and areas
with the introduced Asphodelus fistulosus (onion weed) and Trachyandra
divaricata. The areas of expansion from the lighthouse and Stark Bay are
covered primarily by these plants.

In contrast Theba has not successfully colonised dense stands of
Olearia axillaris on Rottnest. This is most striking south of the lighthouse,
where the change from Acanthocarpus to Olearia is abrupt, and coincides
with the stable boundary of Theba occupation. Similarly Theba is not
found in the Olearia stands east of the lighthouse (northeast of Lighthouse
Swamp), near Bulldozer Swamp (north of Gun Hill), south of Government
House Lake, or in the centre of Point Clune, and is only in the margin of
the stand at the west end of Marjorie Bay. South of the lighthouse a few
defunct small colonies were found in the Olearia area, indicating that this
habitat had been invaded, but has not sustained a permanent population.

Although Olearia appears not to provide suitable habitat for Theba on
Rottnest, the reason is not clear. Colreavy (1977) found that Theba readily
eat Olearia leaves. In addition in the sparse stand occupied by the western
edge of the Marjorie Bay colony Olearia bushes appear to be preferred
resting sites for adult snails. Consequently Theba do not have an aversion
to Olearia, and the unsuitability of this habitat may not be due to the plant
itself.

The other conspicuous habitat not occupied by Theba is mature plan¬
tations with much shade and little ground vegetation. For example the
snails do not occupy the tuart plantation north of Gun Hill, nor the plan¬
tations east of the lighthouse. Similarly, the southwestern edge of the Stark
Bay colony abuts on a dense stand of Acacia. Such an inhibiting effect is
also evident on Garden Island, where Theba are very abundant in the
firebreaks, but absent from the adjacent Acacia thickets.

(b) Fire

Since Theba remain above ground throughout the year, they are par¬
ticularly vulnerable to fire. A major fire burned the area westward from
Narrow Neck in 1974, and apparently caused the reduction in the Cape
Vlaming colony. The previously occupied area is profuse with charred
stumps and dead Theba shells. The isolated colony at Marjorie Bay pre¬
sumably derived from a surviving remnant of the formerly extended Cape
Vlaming colony. The extinction of Theba in the area south of Gun Hill
could also be due to fire, but we have been unable to document a recent
fire in that area. In both of these areas, the present vegetation is largely
Acanthocarpus, so apparently is suitable for Theba.

On the mainland dispersal of Theba has been due largely to human
activity, as indicated by the many colonics found at isolated coastal loca¬
tions frequented by motorists. The same effect is seen on Rottnest, where
the colonies at the lighthouse, Cape Vlaming, and Stark Bay each centre
on military encampments. However, subsequent expansion appears not to

142

have been through human assistance. The only case where the present
distribution is along a road verge is that connecting the lighthouse and
eastern zones. However, in this case, the habitat on either side of the road
is apparently unsuitable: a plantation on the north, and Olearia on the
south. Consequently, the important limits of dispersal have been those of the
snails themselves.

RATES OF COLONISATION

The introduction and subsequent spread of Thcba on Rottnest allows
measurement of the ability of this snail to colonise available habitats. For
each area of colonisation, we measured the distance of expansion in the
eight major compass directions during each between-census interval. The
average of these values was then expressed as expansion per year. As we
are interested here in the ability of the snails to disperse, rather than in
barriers to dispersal, we excluded measurements terminated by shoreline
or other unsuitable habitat (as indicated by stable boundaries between
censuses).

TABLE 2.—RATE OF SPREAD (METRES/YEAR) OF THEBA PISANA THROUGH FAVOUR¬
ABLE HABITAT BETWEEN SURVEY TIMES. DATA PRIOR TO 1978 ARE CALCULATED
FROM SERVENTY AND STORR (1959).

1925 to 1936 1936 to 1947 1947 to 1958 1958 to 1978

22 29 22

— — 15 22

— — 22

— _—_—_ 16

Excluded because of environmental limitations to expansion.

The measurements arc remarkably consistent (Table 2), yielding a
mean (± standard error) linear expansion of 21 (±. 2.6) metres/year. This
value is considerably higher than one might expect from estimates of
movement of 4.7 metres/year by T. pisana in South African dunes (Hick¬
son, 1972). The latter value was based on movements of adult snails during
summer. The advantage of the data for Rottnest is the inclusion of all
means of dispersal over long time intervals.

The areas where the historical rate of expansion is most likely to
continue are from the lighthouse and Stark Bay colonies, as the frontiers
are largely Acanthocarpus and Asphodelus. These colonies are presently
separated by approximately 450 metres. Consequently, we would anticipate
fusion of the two colonies in about 10 years. Expansion from the Cape
Vlaming and Marjorie Bay colonies also seems likely.

Although from the initial rapid spread of Theba on Rottnest one might
predict occupation of the entire island, this now seems unlikely. The ap¬
parent inability of Theba to colonise dense Olearia and other dense cover
indicates that the stable boundaries already discovered are likely to remain.
The maturation of plantation areas will further dissect the areas occupied.
Moreover in many parts of the island Theba are very sparse (Perry, 1978),
even where they w f ere once abundant. Although the reason is not clear,
this low density may prevent expansion of the colonised area.

This survey began as a field exercise for Zoology 200 students at the
University of Western Australia; we thank G. Armstrong, J. Burt, V. Cul¬
len, C. David, A. Gray, C. Harwood, P. Middleton, L. Sorokin, T. Treloar
for their assistance. D. Edward, G. and M. Lewis also helped with the
survey. The Biological Research Station provided accommodation.

LITERATURE CITED

COLREAVY, M. 1977. Factors controlling the distribution of Theba pisana

(Muller). B.Sc. (Hons.) thesis, University of Western Australia.

HICKSON, T. G. L. 1972. A possible case of genetic drift in colonies of the

land snail Theba pisana. Heredity , 29: 177-190.

Eastern Zone
Lighthouse
Cape Vlaming
Stark Bay

143

PERRY, D. H. 1978. The Mediterranean snail (Theba piscina) on RottneSt
Island. W.A. Nat., 14: 24-25.

SERVENTY, D. L. 1949. The spread of the Mediterranean snail on RotU
nest Island. W.A. Nat., 2: 38-42.

SERVENTY, D. L., and G. M. STORR, 1959. The spread of the Medite^
ranean snail on Rottnest Island — Part II. W.A. Nat., 6: 193.196.

ANOTHER DISCOVERY OF ZYGOMATURUS FROM THE
MURCHISON RIVER, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By JANE BALME, Western Australian Museum

In late September 1978, Mr John White of Mullewa reported to the
Western Australian Museum that he had discovered bone fragments crod-
ing out of the banks of the Murchison River. The bones were found in the
same area where, in the late 1950’s, a complete mandible of Zy go mat urns
trilob us was found by H. White (Merrilees, 1968) and a large scapula and
other fragments were found by i. White. Following this report, G. Ken-
drick of the Palaeontology Department and W. Ferguson and myself of
the Archaeology Department of the Western Australian Museum investi-
gated the site.

The fossil site is located in the bed of the Murchison River on Bilia-
balong Station about 20 m downstream from the road bridge on the Mill-
lewa-Gascoyne Junction road, 120 km north of Mullewa. The bones were
embedded on a one metre thick deposit of coarse brown sandstone which
contains some clay and has irregular silicification, particularly in its top
10 cm. Silicified plant fragments arc abundant throughout the unit.

Overlying the fossil bearing unit is a silica band 2-3 cm thick, most
easily visible on the downstream side of the bridge, and above this there
is a coarse brown friable sandstone about 25 cm thick overlain by a grey-
brown silcrete band 10-15 cm thick. All these sediments underlie a modern
red alluvium and all are now cut through by the Murchison River.

The outline of the lower jaw of a large diprotodontid could easily be
recognised among the group of bone fragments shown to us by Mr John
White and in addition to this group, two other bone fragments were found,
each within a few metres of the first group. All the bones were in an
extremely worn and weathered condition and to prevent their further de¬
terioration it was decided to excavate the exposed fragments.

Because the surface of the sediments in which thc^ bones were em¬
bedded was so hard, the fossils were excavated in ‘blocks’ of sediment and
this remaining sediment was removed at the museum. The two blocks
from the main group of fossils revealed several more bone fragments than
had been visible from the surface, but only four of these were identifiable
and most w r ere only scraps of bone.

All four of the identifiable specimens are attributable to the genus
Zygomaturns. These are a left lower permanent premolar (catalogued in
the Western Australian Museum palaeontology collection as 79.1.13), a
molar fragment (79.1.14), a fragment of lower jaw containing a complete
left lower incisor and an incomplete right lower incisor (79.1.12) and the
lingual side of a left dentary containing fragments of the second, third and
fourth molars and including the condyle and coronoid process (79.1.11).
Despite the number of fragments it is possible that only one individual is
represented. A few of the other fragments of bone also represent a large
diprotodontid but these fragments were too incomplete to assign to genus.

The fragments of Zygomaturns do not appear to differ in size or
form from specimens of Zygomaturns trilobus in the W.A. Museum pal¬
aeontology collection (including those found at the Murchison River pre¬
viously) and it is probable that the new' specimens are also referable to Z.
trilobus.

All the bone excavated by us in October appeared to be in the same

144

stratigraphic unit as those found in the late 1950’s, and it is probable that
this unit contains other bones not yet exposed by erosion.

Merrilees (1968: 15) concluded that the Zygomaturus trilobus remains
found by the Whites in the 1950’s arc contemporaneous with artifacts he
found in similar sediments in the district. Recently, Wyrwoll and Dortch
(1978) reported the association of artifacts with a mandible of Zygomaturus
trilobus in the nearby Greenough River. Investigations now in progress
may provide more evidence for the antiquity of the Murchison River fos¬
sils and the possible causes of this species’ extinction.

I am grateful to G. Kendrick for discussions and to C. E. Dortch and
G. Kendrick who read the manuscript.

REFERENCES

MERRILEES, D. 1968. Man the destroyer: late Quaternary changes in the
Australian marsupial fauna. Journal of the Royal Society of Western
Australia, 51: 1-24.

WYRWOLL, K.-H. and C. E. DORTCH 1978. Stone artifacts and an as¬
sociated diprotodontid mandible from the Greenough River, Western
Australia. Search, 9: 411-413.

WATERFOWL UTILIZATION OF LAKE CLAREMONT
DURING 1977

By K. D. MORRIS and B. KNOTT, Department of Zoology, University
of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009

INTRODUCTION

Lake Claremont, situated in the Perth suburb of Claremont, lies in
a depression in the Spearwood System of coastal sand dunes. It is now a
permanent freshwater lake, which covers an area of approximately 20 ha
at high water and has a maximum depth of 2.5 m. Until 1918 the area
comprised a central swamp zone with paper bark trees (Melaleuca rhaphio-
phylla) and two small permanent waterholes surrounded by an area of
brown sandy soil supporting Blackboys (Xanthorrhoea preissii) and Tuart$
(Eucalyptus gomphocephala) (Evans and Sherlock, 1950). The lake is
thought to have formed after 1920 when several successive years of high
rainfall elevated the metropolitan water table (Serventy, 1948; Evans
and Sherlock, 1950; Scddon," 1972). Only remnants of the original vegeta¬
tion now remain since the establishment of sporting amenities and picnic
area around the lake. Within Lake Claremont small areas of the sedge
(Scirpus lacustris) and Bulrush (Typha orientalis) are the only living emer¬
gent macrophytes. Some skeletons of dead paperbarks also remain. The
area was known as Butler’s Swamp until July 1954 when the name
Lake Claremont was formally adopted (West Australian, July 23, 1954).

Along with other water bodies on the Swan Coastal Plain, Lake
Claremont is utilized by birds as an area for refuge from storms and the
activities of man (e.g. Silver Gull, Lams novaehollandiae); for feeding
(e.g. Black-winged Stilts, Himantopus himantopus); and for breeding and
nesting (e.g. Black Duck. Anas superciliosa: Coots, Fulica atra and Black
Swans, Cygnus at rat us) (Serventy, 1948; Seddon, 1972). Particularly in the
summer birds utilize Lake Claremont in large numbers; many waterfowl
such as the Black-wingcd Stilt and the Black Duck migrate inland in winter
when water bodies in the hinterland become available for exploitation by
them (Serventy & Whittell, 1967). Emory et al. (1975) counted the number
of birds utilizing Lake Claremont on 15 occasions from 1972 to 1974,
mainly in the latter months of 1972 (5 times from September to December)
and 1974 (8 times from September to November). They recorded fewer
birds present on the lake in 1972 and attributed this to the higher level
of salinity of the water over that period.

145

It was planned to monitor the bird life utilizing Lake Claremont (a$
part of the First Year Zoology 110 Course at the University of Western
Australia*) from March until September 1977, that is through a season
infrequently sampled by Emory et a/. However, because of the drought
experienced in the Perth metropolitan area during 1977 the study fortuL
tously provided an excellent opportunity to check the validity of Emory
et al's suggestion that on Lake Claremont bird numbers decline when the
salinity level increases. Data from the fieldwork in 1977 forms the basis
of the present paper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five observation sites were selected along the western half of the
lake, and each site was manned by 2 students*. Each observation site
covered an area of aproximately 100 x 75 m; only the western half of
the lake was surveyed. Counts of bird numbers and species were made from
10:00 hours to 12:00 hours on the 6 days specified in Table 1. Although
salinity levels were monitored on each sampling period using a Salt Bridge
type MC5 Salinity/Temperature meter, the results are not presented here
because of doubt concerning reliability of the instrument. Instead we
quote salinity levels and water depths data kindly provided by the Metro¬
politan Water Board.

TABLE 1.—WATERFOWL SCORED DURING THE PRESENT STUDY AT LAKE CLAREMONT.

27.3.77

3.4.77

19.4.77

5.6.77

3.7.77

14.9.77

Black Duck . .

192

113

Grey Teal .

Silver Gull .

560

300

150

Coot .

120

Black Swan .

Swamp Hen

Black-winged Stilt .

145

Little Pied Cormorant ..

Pelican .

Pink-eared Duck .

Chestnut Teal .

Blue-billed Duck .

Muscovy Duck .

TOTAL .

1044

467

220

328

111

126

SPECIES .

Hi* ...

1.31

1.10

1.35

1.21

1.72

Ji** .

1.37

1.30

1.59

1.73

1.72

‘Shannon Weiner Diversity Index

**Evenness J l = H 1
log S

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 13 species of waterfowl were recorded at Lake Claremont
during the present study (Table 1), a number which compares favourably
with the 13 and 16 species recorded in 1972 and 1974 respectively by
Emory et al.

The species present on the lake at any one time depend largely upon
the migrating and reproductive habits of the waterfowl. Birds known to
breed on Lake Claremont e.g. Black Duck, Anas superciliosa (J. Dell pers.
comm., mating behaviour observed in September 1977); Coot, Fulica atra
(courtship observed in September 1977); Black Swan, Cygnus citratus, and
possibly also Grey Teal, Anas gibberifrons (Serventy & Whittcll, 1967,
describe the species as an opportunistic breeder, it probably breeds on
metropolitan lakes in dry years) appear to persist there throughout the
year. The Black-winged Stilt, Himantopus himantopus, which was present

•The students involved in the study, all members of the 1977 Zoology 110 Course,
University of Western Australia, were J. Adamson, M. Beros, M. Bosca, J. Denny. J. Lloyd,
K. Maley, R. Mitchell, R. Petterson, A. Prins, J. Power and T. Thornton.

146

in high numbers in March 1977 after which times its numbers gradually
declined (Table 1), was not recorded by Emory et al. This species feeds
on the exposed mudflats of Lake Claremont during summer months and
migrates inland to salt lakes in the wheatbelt after the first rains in the
metropolitan area. Silver Gulls, Larus novaehollandiae, were abundant
in March and April 1977, when they were observed to be mostly resting.
Members of this species breed on offshore islands in spring and autumn
(Serventy & Whittell, 1967), but large numbers seek refuge on coastal water
bodies during storms (Emory et al., 1975).

The Pink-eared Duck, Malacorhynchus membranacetis, also observed
breeding on Lake Claremont (Rooke, 1963); Chestnut Teal, Anas castanea,
and Blue-billed Duck, Oxyurns australis, were all observed once, and then
on the same day, i.e. September 14, 1977. These species and others re¬
corded by Emory et al. (1975, Table 1) but not observed during the
present study, e.g. Dusky Moorhen, Gallinula tenebrasa; Little Grebe,
Podiceps novaehollandiae, and perhaps the Hoary-headed Grebe, Podiceps
poliocephalus, are all predominantly non-migratory waterfowl and appar¬
ently persist about Lake Claremont in low numbers. Their infrequent sight¬
ing during the present study is probably due to sampling vagaries. Other
species appear to visit Lake Claremont only sporadically. Those observed
in the present study include the Little Pied Cormorant, Phalacrocorax
nielanoleucos , and Pelican, Pelecanns conspicillatus. In the same category
are the Great Crested Grebe, Podiceps cristatus; Little Bittern, Ixobrychus
mi nut us, and Reed Warbler, Acrocephahts stentoreus, recorded by Emory
et al., (1975).

The numbers of waterfowl counted in this study were higher before the
first rains of the year, which fell on April 30, 1977, than after, i.e. while
the higher salinity levels persisted in the lake (Table 5). Also, the diversity
of the waterfowl population (Shannon Weiner diversity index H l , evenness
J 1 ) was lowest during the winter months of 1977, presumably determined
by the departure of certain species for inland areas. While it is difficult
to draw strong conclusions from data gained from studies with such
limited sampling programmes and different sampling times and strategies,
our data (Table 1) together with the 1974 data of Emory et al. indicate
that waterfowl numbers at Lake Claremont during both these years were
consistently higher than during the latter months of 1972.

TABLE 2.—SUMMARY OF WATERFOWL SEEN AT LAKE CLAREMONT
By EMORY et al. (1975)

CVJ

C\J

CVJ

r--

M-

•**.

r>-

M-

■M-

•'j-

h--

*3-

m- r*-

f- ,j

T ". d

IT)

CVJ

co ■»-

TOTAL BIRDS

114

129

7223

7292

919

924 948

SPECIES

14 13

H 1 *

1.62 1.64 1.86 1.80 1.79 1.62 1.80 1.70 1.49 1.95

0.13

0.18

0.83

0.88 0.96

ji**

1.79 1.81

1.72 1.80 1.79 1.91

1.99 1.63 2.13 2.04

0.12

0.16

0.767 0.76 0.86

•Shannon Weiner Diversity index
**Evenness J l = H 1

log S

The diversity indices for the Emory et al., data (summarised here in
Table 2) have also been determined and it would appear that the diversity
of the waterfowl on Lake Claremont was not significantly different during
1972 and 1977. However in 1974 a big reduction in diversity of the
population was seen with the influx of large numbers of Silver Gulls.

Assuming that the reduction in numbers was not due to sampling
error, why then were there fewer waterfowl utilizing Lake Claremont in

147

1972? Emory et al. proposed two possible answers to this question; namely
the reduction was due to differences in the timing of the seasons, or to
differences in the water quality, that is salinity level, between 1972 and
1974. Greater emphasis is given to the second suggestion. We question
both suggestions as being too simplistic, particularly when the climate
operating over Western Australia since 1970, and the biology of the
waterfowl are taken into account.

TABLE 3.—ANNUAL RAINFALL TOTALS FOR VARIOUS LOCALITIES (mm)

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

Average

Perth

908

800

613

975

939

682

711

607

879

Brookton

408

411

264

465

507

411

468

135

468

Merredin

352

385

387

378

491

335

309

204

331

Kalgoorlie

171

128

151

385

418

420

—

263

Meekatharra

145

258

168

354

330

442

140

229

Esperance

854

554

620

575

—

705

Lake Grace

310

415

212

367

508

326

395

287

362

Narrogin

555

561

311

529

673

484

467

443

509

Pemberton

1337

1266

934

1429

1129

1120

—

1245

TABLE 4.— INTERRELATIONSHIP OF RAINFALL
LAKE CLAREMONT
(Dates shown in brackets)

AND WATER LEVEL

Rainfall

Water depth (m)

(mm)

Max.

Min.

Average

1970

908

2.332

1.521

1.933

(4.8.70)

(14.4.70)

1971

800

2.045

1.689

1.851

(5.10.71)

(3.3.71)

1972

613

1.865

1.317

1.551

(28.8.72)

(7.4.72)

1973

975

2.340

1.600

1.993

(30.7.73)

(2.2.73)

1974

939

2.450

1.510

1.977

(11.11.74)

(26.3.74)

1975

682

2.182

1.676

1.888

(1.9.75)

(7.4.75)

1976

711

1.951

1.371

1.644

(8.9.76)

(5.4.76)

1977

607

1.660

1.206

1.390

(4.9.77)

(3.5.77)

TABLE 5.— SALINITY OF

LAKE CLAREMONT

(NaCI

measured

in mg/I)

J F

1972

5,600

1973

580

1974

1.050

1.040

620

500

1975

1,020

1,320

755

1976

2,770

1,135

1977

4,220

1,740

The annual rainfall for Perth and several country localities since
1970 is shown in Table 3, the inter-relationship of rainfall and the water
level at Lake Claremont since 1970 is shown in Table 4, and salinity
readings for various months at Lake Claremont are shown in Table 5. The
climatic data and the data on the condition of Lake Claremont collected
by us indicate that Lake Claremont was in a similar situation in 1977 as
it was in 1972, that is, the annual rainfall for both years was well below
average, the corresponding water level of Lake Claremont was low, and
salinity levels were high. Therefore although Lake Claremont was in fact
in “poorer” condition with respect to high salinity levels in 1972 as
compared with 1974, it was no more severe than that experienced in 1977.
Therefore this explanation given by Emory et al. cannot be regarded as

148

the only reason for lower waterfowl numbers. In fact the number of
waterfowl utilizing Lake Claremont will depend upon a number of
factors, probably with quite complex interrelationships. Besides salinity
levels, consideration must be given to:

(a) the area and water available elsewhere for breeding and feeding.
There were presumably fewer refuges available for exploitation by water-
fowl in inland areas in 1972, because of the lower rainfall, and conse¬
quently greater numbers should have been observed on the permanent
water bodies of the Swan Coastal Plain.

(b) the feeding biology of some species with respect to the area of
mudflat exposed. This would affect such species as the Black-winged Stilt
which feed predominantly on such areas.

(c) the incidence of disease in low rainfall years, for example, botulism.
This explanation for the lower numbers in 1972 cannot be ignored, al¬
though as yet we have not been able to find any published information
in support of this possibility. Algal poisoning was responsible for killing
hundreds of birds and fish in Lake Monger in January 1971 (West Austra¬
lian, February 4, 1971). Also 80 dead fish were found in Lake Claremont
in January 1971 (West Australian, January 18, 1971).

(d) the effect of weedicide and pollutants on the waterfowl population.
During July/August 1972 Lake Claremont was sprayed with a weed killer
to eradicate reeds which were threatening to choke the lake (West Austra¬
lian, August 10, 1972). The effect this had on the waterfowl has not
been documented, but should be considered as being a possible agent for
reduction of waterfowl numbers in the latter months of 1972. Also some
time between 1971 and 1973 a black substance emanating from the dump
on the margin of Lake Claremont was noticed by local residents (L.
Quinlivan pers. comm.). Coincidental with this pollution, there was high
mortality of the frog fauna at the lake.

In view of the fact that bird numbers in 1977 and 1974 are com¬
parable, it is probable that Emory et al. in fact documented the recovery
of the waterfowl population after the Lake Claremont ecosystem had been
disturbed by some chemical agent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the Metropolitan Water Board for the water
level data of Lake Claremont, the Bureau of Meteorology for the rainfall
data, and the Claremont Library for their assistance in newspaper searches.
We would also like to thank Professor Bradshaw, Dr G. Storr and Mr J.
Dell for reading the manuscript; and Professor Bradshaw for provision
of laboratory facilities used for this study.

REFERENCES

EMORY, K., I. R. LANTZKE, G. L. LAMBERT, and F. OSBORNE 1975.
Waterfowl seen at Lake Claremont (Butler’s Swamp) in the springs
of 1972 and 1974. W.A. Naturalist , 13 (2): 34-37.

EVANS, G. A. and N. A. SHERLOCK 1950. Butler’s Swamp, Claremont.
W.A. Naturalist, 2 (7): 152-160.

ROOKE, D. A. 1963. Nesting of the Pink-eared Duck near Perth. W.A.
Naturalist, 8 (8): 187-188.

SEDDON, G. 1972. Sense of Place. University of W.A. Press, Nedlands
274 pp.

SERVENTY, D. L. 1948. The birds of the Swan River district, W.A. Emu,
47 (4): 241-286.

SERVENTY, D. L. and H. M. WHITTELL, 1967. Birds of Western Aus¬
tralia 4th cd. Lamb Publications, Perth W.A. 440 pp.

149

OBSERVATIONS ON BIRD PLANT INTERACTIONS IN THE
STIRLING RANGE

By G. J. KEIGHERY, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, West Perth

INTRODUCTION

During May 1979 the author spent a week in the Stirling Ranges.
Although the weather had been unseasonally dry very large numbers of
Purple-crowned Lorikeets and New Holland Honeyeaters were present in
the ^woodlands and heathlands respectively. Observations on these areas
were carried out at various times of the day and are reported in detail
below.

WOODLAND

Around the Stirling Range Caravan Park approximately one third.of
the Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl. trees were in full blossom in the Wandoo
woodland'. These trees were being visited by many hundreds of i Lirp e-
crowned Lorikeets which feed on these trees throughout the day. Generally
birds visited 1-7 flowers per tree before moving on to another, generally in
the same flowering clumps. A few Red Wattle-birdswere also vs.tingth^
species and Eucalyptus uncinata T urcz (GK 2292) which was sparsely in
flower.

MALLEE/HEATHLAND
Eucalyptus macrocera Turcz.

An extremely variable species. Plants on Mt Success and Bluff Knoll
(GK 2304) are small malices growing on rocky slopes, with only a few
flowers per infloresence (often with only one flower open per inflorescence).

an a l c c of Mt Talyuberup (GK 2320) are large rees or tree
maUees w th inflorescences containing many often green-yellow flowers
ooking superficially much like Euc. lehmamuana. n the mountain popula¬
tions the few plants in flower were visited sporadically by New Holland
HnnevenierVand Western Spinebills. The lowland populations contained very
”rge y numbers^’of New Hyland Honeyeaters and Red Wattle-birds which
fed continually in this clump throughout the day.

Banksia brownii Baxter

This species, a dominant of the area, was in full flower on Mt Hassell
and Mt Success Large numbers of New Holland Honeyeaters had set up
feeding territories in both areas, and a considerable amount of mtra-spec.fic
aggression was occurring between feeding and defending birds. Red Wattle-
bfrds and Western Spinebills made rare sorties into the clumps to feed.

Muirlantha hassellii (F. Muell.) C. A. Gardn.

A small bell-flowered genus of Rutaccae endemic to the Stirlings,
Muirlantha, was studied on Red Gum Hill and Mt Hassell. This species
contained very little nectar and was only sporadically probed by New Hol¬
land Honeyeaters during observation periods. This species was, however,
having a very poor season due to the dry conditions, and may be locally
very common under favourable conditions. Further observations are
needed.

Miscellaneous species:—

Lambertia uniflora R.Br. New Holland Honeyeaters and Western
Spinebills probing flowers on Mt Success.

Lambertia ericifolia R.Br. New Hollands probing flowers on Red Gum

Hill.

Astroloma microcalyx Sond. (GK 2338) Pair of New Hollands probing
flowers on ground and in bush, pollen seen on bills; Red Gum Spring.

Adenanthos filifolia Benth. New Holland Honeyeaters probing flow¬
ers on Mt Success, Red Gum Hill.

150

Calothamnus sanguineus Labill. New Holland Honeyeaters probing,
pollen on head, at Red Gum Springs.

Dryandra armata R.Br. (GK 2312) Probed by New Holland Honey-
eaters, upper slopes Mt Success.

Dryandra cuneata R.Br. (GK 2333) Probed by a single New Holland
Honeyeater, lower slopes Mt Success.

Gr evil lea aff brownii Mcisn. (GK 2289) Western Spinebill, pollen on
bill, Bluff Knoll.

Grevillea brownii Meisn. (GK 2337) Prostrate shrub, visited by single
Singing Honeyeater, and a pair of New Hollands. Feed on ground 8 km
East of the Porongurups.

Beaufortia anisandra Schau. (GK 2302) One New Holland probine
Mt Hassell.

Dryandra sessilis (Knight.) Domin (GK 2285) probed by pair of New
Holland Honeyeaters, Red Gum Hill.

ANTS PROTECTING BANKSIA FLOWERS FROM
DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS?

By JOHN K. SCOTT, Department of Zoology, University of
Western Australia. Nedlands

ABSTRACT

A beneficial interaction between Banksia media and ants is suggested. Nectar pro¬
duced from sites of insect damage on the immature conflorescence is thought to encour¬
age ant patrolling of conflorescences and give protection against flower destroying
insects.

INTRODUCTION

The conflorescence or flowering spike of Banksia is attacked by the
larvae of Lepidoptera and Curculionidae. I have made observations on a

Fig. 1.—Immature Banksia media conflorescence with an unidentified ant
species feeding on nectar produced at sites of insect damage.

151

number of species of Banksia and have found up to 90% of conflorescences
attacked by insects (Scott, 1979). This causes a marked reduction in seed
set. The usual mode of insect attack is for the adult insect to lay eggs on
the conflorescence at the stage of development when the individual flowers
are the same size as the bracts. The insect larvae cat through the bracts
and developing flowers and by producing frass and stopping the develop¬
ment of flowers, make the point of attack obvious to the observer.

During April 13-16, 1979, I examined populations of Banksia in the
Hopetoun and Ravensthorpe districts. B. media, B. speciosa, B. violacea
were in flower and B. baueri and B. quercifolia var. integrifolia were be¬
ginning to flower.

OBSERVATIONS ON ANTS AND BANKSIA MEDIA
In the Fitzgerald River National Park near East Mount Barren ants
were observed on the open flowers of B. media and B. speciosa but B. media
differed because ants were also found on the undeveloped conflorescences
(Fig. 1). On closer examination some of these ants were feeding on liquid
at points resembling sites of insect damage.

The liquid tasted sweet. From two plants I measured the equivalent
of the percent sucrose of the liquid by using a Bellingham and Stanley Ltd.
Refractometer. Values of 30 and 51 per cent sucrose were obtained. Inc
high reading was taken in the afternoon and was probably affected by
evaporation. The other reading was taken in the evening. Most of the
damage sites did not have sufficient liquid to take a reading with the re¬
fractometer but numerous sites were seen to be visited by ants. The ants
were also numerous on undamaged immature conflorescences. When the
ants were disturbed on either the open flowers of immature conflorescences
they became agitated but did not attack. The following ant species were
involved: Campanotus species, Crematogastar species, Dolichoderns spec¬
ies, Iridomyrmex conifer, /. purpureas and two Iridomyrmex species and
other species were noticed but not collected. The adult ants are nectarivores
but feed their young with insect larvae (Peter McMillan pers. comm.). A
number of bushes had only one ant species present but up to three were
observed on a single conflorescence.

A similar situation to the above was observed at a spongilite quarry
17 km S.W. from Ravensthorpe on Scott Road and also about a kilometre
east from the site of Kundip on the Hopetoun road. However at two other
sites, 10 km from Ravensthorpe on the Hopetoun road and 41 km from
Lake King on the Lake King to Ravensthorpe road, ants were only found
on the open flowers and not on the immature conflorescences. 1 he imma¬
ture conflorescences at the latter two locations were also notable for the
absence of insect attack or damage sites similar to the other populations.

FLOWER-DESTROYING INSECTS
Two species of insect appear to be destroying flowers at the Fitzgerald
River National Park. Evidence of attack and destruction similar to that
caused by the moth larvae of Aroirophora arcuatalis (Tortricidae) was ob¬
served. This moth is a major Banksia flower destroyer (Scott, 1979) and
occurs in a number of Banksia species (Common, 1963; Scott. 1979). The
other insect was the larvae of Myositta species (Curculionidac: Eugnomin-
ae). An adult Myositta sp. was observed preparing a site for egg laying on
a mature flower spike. The female weevil eats a hole among the bracts
and flowers and deposits eggs in the hole. Ants were also present and even
walked over the weevil without disturbing it. This weevil is widespread as
a flower destroyer among Banksia species (Scott, 1979).

EXPLANATIONS OF THE OBSERVATIONS
A number of suggestions arise from these observations. The most
tempting is that at sites of insect attack, B. media produces nectar as a
response to the wound. This nectar at the site of the wound acts as a reward
to the ants, which patrol the immature conflorescence, tending the nectar

152

sources and possibly also collecting the eggs and larvae of the flower-des¬
troying insects thus protecting the conflorescence from further damage. If
this is the case then a large percentage of confloresccnces would be expected
to produce seed. When an insect larva burrows in the conflorescence it
destroys some of the woody axis. Consequently no seed will be set above
the lowest point of damage to the woody axis although there may be
seed developed below. Therefore a measure of the absence of insect attack
is the percentage of confloresccnces which set seed at the top. This assumes
adequate pollination. 1 examined fourteen large bushes in the Fitzgerald
River National Park, selected in a semi-random fashion and examined a
sample of infructcsccnccs (seed bearing cones) on each bush. Only infruc-
tescences which would have been produced in the previous three years were
examined to avoid problems of decomposition of non-seeding conflores-
cences. Between 16 and 38 infructcscences were inspected on each bush.
For the sample of 14 bushes the average percent of infructcscences without
seed at the top was 12.4 with a standard error of the mean of 2.53. The
non-seeding con florescences were damaged by A. arcuatalis and Myositta sp.
but each conflorescence may have had seed at the bottom. This is a very
low percentage of confloresccnces without seed at the top compared with
other species (Scott, 1979). For comparison 58.6% of B. ilicifolia, 97.6%
of B. attenuate, 78.5% of B. grandis and 95.0% of B. menziesii, at the
Jandakot Marsupial Breeding Station, did not set seed on the top 20% of
the conflorescence.

The other possibility is that ants damage the immature conflorescence
to encourage nectar production. This is unlikely as some populations of
B. media had ants on the flower but not on the immature conflorescence
and ants could be found on conflorescences without any damage sites.

DISCUSSION

Associations between ants and nectar produced by plants are well
known and reviewed in Bentley (1977) but have not been suggested for
Banksia. Bentley was primarily concerned with extrafloral nectaries but it
could be possible that a similar interaction between ants and nectaries of
immature flowers occurs in Banksia. The points she lists which indicate a
beneficial interaction arc:—

1. Ants must be present on the plant.

2. Ants must show aggressive behaviour towards potential herbivores
and/or be predators on the herbivores.

3. The plant must be vulnerable to herbivore attack.

4. To be most efficient, nectar flow should vary directly with the
herbivores’ activity.

The first point is true for B. media, however the second point is not
shown by the observations. The ants are not aggressive to humans or to an
adult weevil and it remains to be shown that ants remove insect larvae.
Banksia species are thought to be primarily pollinated by birds (Paton
and Ford, 1977: Whelan and Burbidge, 1979), so a lack of aggression by
the ants could be beneficial from the plant’s point of view. The plant is
vulnerable to herbivore attack in the form of flower destroyers and nectar
production appears to be initiated by the insect attack.

A simple experiment would test both if there is a beneficial relation¬
ship or if ants cause the damage. The ants could be excluded from the
immature conflorescence and the resulting infructcsccnce examined to see
if there was a lower seed set than in conflorescences to which ants had
access. If the sites of insect attack disappear when the ants are excluded
then damage is caused by ants and not the flying adults of flower-destroying
insects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the staff and students of the Geology Depart¬
ment, University of Western Australia for organising the field trip to Hope-

153

toun. Peter McMillan of the Zoology Department, University of Westerji
Australia, identified the ants. This work was financed by a University of
Western Australia Postgraduate Studentship. I also thank B. Miller and
W. R. Black for their comments.

REFERENCES

BENTLEY, B. L. 1977. Extrafloral nectaries and protection by pugnacious
bodyguards. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst ., 8: 407-27.

COMMON, I. F. B. 1963. A revision of the Australian Cnephasiini (Lepi-
doptera: Tortricidae: Tortricinae). Aust. J. Zool., 11: 81-152.

PATON, D. C., and H. A. FORD 1977. Pollination by birds of native
plants in South Australia. Emu, 77: 73-85.

SCOTT, J. K. 1979. Interactions in time and space between seed destroying
insects and Banksia species. Ph.D. Thesis, Zoology Department, Uni¬
versity of Western Australia (in preparation).

WHELAN, R. J., and A. H. BURBIDGE 1979. Flowering phenology, seed
set, and bird pollination of five Western Australian Banksia species.
A ust. J. Ecol. (in press).

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

Insect Pollination of Suaeda australis (Clienopodiaceae). —Suaeda
australis (R.Br.) Moq. is a common wind-pollinated perennial herb, found
on damp saline soils throughout southern Western Australia. The author
studied this species at Wilkie Street Swamp, South Guildford, where it
formed a large monospecific stand on open saline black mud. Plants at this
locality flower during summer producing copious amounts of pollen but
no nectar. Observations during January and February 1978 showed large
numbers of honey-bees (Apis mcllifera L.) and syrphid flies were collecting
pollen from open flowers. They visited from 1-20 flowers per plant before
moving on. Flowers checked after visitations had pollen deposited on the
stigma (plants from this area are self fertile). From the large number of
visits and their systematic nature it is apparent that insect pollination must
be of considerable importance in this population of normally wind pollinat¬
ed herbs.

—G. J. KEIGHERY, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, West Perth.

Bird Records from the Salt Lake, Culeenup I. Yundurup. —The Salt
Lake at the western end of Culeenup (Mill) Island, Yundurup had an un¬
usually good assortment of birdlife when we visited it on May 12, 1979.
There were literally dozens of White-faced Herons (we counted 36 in one
flight) flying with some half-dozen White Egrets. Feeding among the
samphire on the south side of the lake were several dozen Banded Stilts.
Most exciting was the sighting of a White Ibis, flying with the egrets
and herons. When we returned to the lake next day none of these birds
were present.

The bird list for the Yundurup delta published in the IV.A. Naturalist ,
11 (7), 1970, p. 164, makes no mention of the White Ibis. However Nat¬
uralist Club records include a sighting of a flock of eight birds soaring in
a thermal over Lot 24 on March 3, 1975.

—RAY OLDHAM, Swanbourne.

Pollination of Nematolepis (Rutaccae). — Nematolepis is an endemic
genus of large shrubs which occurs on limestone clay soils between Lake
Grace and Israelite Bay. The sole species N. phebalioides generally occurs
in dense populations under mallee eucalypts within this region. Flowering
occurs sporadically between April and December, but peak flowering is
during spring (Aug.-Nov.). The flowers are solitary, tubular, coloured red

154

with green tips (Fig. 1) and borne in great profusion on the bushes during
peak flowering. Nectar is produced at the base of the floral tube.

During August 1976 I was able to observe two large populations of
Nematolepis in flower at Needup Copper Mine and near Fitzgerald Inlet
in Fitzgerald National Park. Both populations were being visited by num¬
erous New Holland Honeyeaters which were observed carrying pollen be¬
tween plants.

Within the same area the birds were observed feeding on Eucalyptus
occidentalis and rarely on Bossiaca dentata.

I would like to thank Mrs J. Dewing who provided transport to and
through a very wet Fitzgerald National Park.

—G. J. KEIGHERY, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, West Perth.

155

Dollar-bird (Eurystomus orientalis) at Karratha.—On January 10, 1975
I was advised by Mr D. H. Fleming of Karratha that a bird, believed to bs
a Dollar-bird, was perching on power lines adjacent to his residence iq
Richardson Way, Karratha. He had seen two similar birds at the sams
location two days previously.

1 inspected the area in question at 1800 hrs and observed a bird
“rolling in” to perch on power lines about 12 m away from my observation
point. Careful observation confirmed it as a Dollar-bird. Checks of ths
area after the 19th did not result in further sightings.

Serventy and Whittell (Birds of Western Australia, 5th Edition, 1976)
record two previous sightings from the Pilbara—one on June 14, 1953 at
Winning Pool by J. H. Calaby and one in December 1972 at Shay Gap
by John Darnell.

—R. E. S. SOKOLOWSK1, Reserves Officer, Department of Fisheries and
Wildlife, Karratha.

Little Corellas feeding on Immature Seed of Acacia trachycarpa .—
On August 8, 1978 at 0715 II a flock of 40 Little Corellas (Cacatua sort*
guinea) were observed in a small clump of wattle. Acacia trachycarpa E.
Pritzel (Mimosaceae), located outside the passenger terminal of the Port
Hedland Airport. On closer inspection it was found that the birds were
feeding on immature seeds within the pods. These seeds were soft and
lacked the hardened testa of the mature seed (Fig. 1). The birds did not
remove the pods from the wattle but merely excised the seeds (Fig. 2). Not
all the seeds from each pod were eaten. Acacia trachycarpa is widely dis¬
tributed in the Pilbara region of the State (Hopper & Maslin, Aust. J. Bot.,
1978, 26: 63-78). It flowers in May-June while pods containing mature seeds
are present in late October; both appear to vary with seasonal conditions,
A voucher specimen of Acacia trachycarpa is lodged in the Western Aus¬
tralian Herbarium (PERTH).

Fig. 1.—Seed of Acacia trachycarpa. A: immature seed on which Little
Corellas were feeding at Port Hedland airport (from Kenneally 6833).
B: mature seed showing hard, black, shiny testa (from Demarz D57-7).

156

Fig. 2. — Pod of Acacia trachycarpa. Black arrows indicate where seeds
have been excised; clear arrows indicate where the seeds have not been
removed (from Kenncally 6833).

—K. F. KENNEALLY Western Australian Herbarium and K. C.
PIRKOPF, Nedlands.

Second Australian Specimen of the Pintail Snipe (Gallinago stenura ).—
On January 8, 1979 Mr W, H. Butler collected a Pintail Snipe at Myaree
Pool on the Maitland River near Karratha HS. Mr Butler kindly donated
the specimen (and several other Pilbara birds and reptiles) to the Western
Australian Museum.

This specimen (A 15868) is similar in size to the first (West. Aust. Nat.,
13: 207). According to Mr Butler it was a male (testes 4 x 4 mm), weighed
107.6 g, and was 19 cm long in the flesh. Other measurements (in mm) are
wing 131, tail 48, entire bill 63 and tarsus 31. The tail consists of 26
feathers, including on each side 8 narrow outer rectrices; the outermost
rectrix is only 0.9 mm wide. In coloration, however, this specimen differs
in no way from our series of G. megala (the first specimen had a darker
tail). We therefore believe that the snipes visiting Western Australia can
only be distinguished after counting the tail feathers and measuring the
width of the outermost.

—G. M. STORR & R. E. JOHNSTONE, Western Australian Museum.

Further southward spread of White-backed Swallow on Swan Coastal
Plain.—Following the recent note by N. Kolichis (W. Aust. Nat., 14: 131)
concerning the spread of the White-backed Swallow (Cheramoeca leucos-
ternum) southwards through the Swan Coastal Plain, I can report a further
extension of range south to Lake Jandakot (Lake Forrestdale) on March
16, 1979. A single bird was present, calling its way through large num¬
bers of Tree Martins (Petrochelidon nigricans) feeding over the lakebed.

It appears that in 13 years, the species has extended its range on the
coastal plain by the span of the Perth metropolitan area, or about 40 km
from Wanneroo to Forrestdale.

—PETER CURRY, Kclmscott.

157

Aggression Display by White-naped Honeyeaters.—On October 9,
1978 in the karri forest, Warren National Park at Pemberton, the follow,
ing incident was witnessed. I was walking carefully in an area of fairly
open understorey among karri near our campsite when a pair of White-nap-
ed Honeyeaters fluttered down in front of me almost at my feet. The two
birds were locked in combat, it appeared, whilst a third bird of the same
species perched a short distance away. My presence may have disturbed
the two birds for they flew off, one closely followed by the other to
some scrub about four metres away where the combat continued. The
birds became locked together again using claws, wings and beaks both to
hold and to strike each other and quickly fell to the ground. The third
bird remained a short distance away observing the struggle.

The antagonists rolled about on the ground for several minutes, oc¬
casionally resting for short periods still locked together only to continue
the desperate struggle after each pause. In this fashion, the two slowly
approached me to within about 2.5 metres and appeared oblivious to all
else.

As the two rolled into a shallow depression beneath a small log, they
became separated and one emerged on the other side of the log and flew
towards me. Its opponent followed closely. They met briefly on my bare
head, locked again, and fell to my feet where the struggle continued.
The pair were partly screened from me now by fallen twigs and leaves.
This part of the incident was short and then after a brief pause of about
30 seconds, and another scuffle, the pair separated and flew on to
different trees. The third honeyeater was not observed at this point. It
was not possible at any time to distinguish the sexes of any of the birds.
The whole sequence must have taken between five and ten minutes.

—K. GRIFFITHS, Parkerville.

Breeding behaviour in the atherine fish Craterocephalus.- There is
little published observation of breeding behaviour of Australian marine
fishes, apart from a few species which are popular as aquarium fishes,
or have commercial importance.

During biological surveys of Barrow Island, W.A., I made one such
record in Bandicoot Bay, a very large bay at the southern end of the
island. The western side of this bay contains a senescent grove of the
mangrove Avicenna marina. On February 10, 1977 w'hile observing in
these mangroves, I noticed unusual activity taking place among the sub¬
merged aerial roots of the mangrove. Closer investigation showed the
whole area (aproximately 50 metres) was massed with small fish, later
identified from specimens as Craterocephalus pauciradiatus (Atherinidae).
Each fish was about 350 to 400 mm in length and the group behaved in a
manner reminiscent of the breeding run of the American Grumon.

As the tiny waves lapped the beach, the female buried her head in
the sand at the wave edge, swimming and fanning vigorously, while the
tail and body stood erect. This caused a “boil” of water and sandy mud,
like a miniature volcano. Other fish joined this activity and added to the
fanning which caused vigorous jets of water to be thrown into the air. As
each wave ebbed fish were left stranded with tails flicking and heads
standing above the water-line. Each fish “boil” contained 10 to 12 individ¬
uals. When disturbed they immediately wriggled back to the sea with none
moving in the wrong direction.

The sand from the “boil” contained visible eggs slightly smaller than
pinhead size. The activity was noted at 1826 hours on a falling tide. By
1900 hours there was no sign of any of the fish.

The only predation observed was by a Sacred Kingfisher Halcyon
sancta. It repeatedly dived and took individuals which were beaten on the
mangrove perch before being swallowed. Some fish were seen to have been
taken by small crabs but whether these were alive or dead at time of
capture I was not able to determine.

— W. H. BUTLER. Wanneroo.

158

A Sighting of the Brown Booby outside its recognized range._The

Brown Booby (Sulci leucogaster) is a common sea-bird in northern Australia.
Its range is recognized as extending northward along the coastline from
Dampier Archipelago in Western Australia to Moreton Bay in Queensland,
although on the eastern coast birds have been seen as far south as Altona’
13 km west of Melbourne (Serventy et al., Handbook of Australian Sea¬
birds, 1971).

At noon, August 5, 1978, I saw a single adult Brown Booby 3-4 km
from the shore (22°30\ 113°40 , ) > approximately 25 km north of Point
Cloates. The bird was flying northward at a height of approximately 15 m
above the sea and passed me about 30 m away.

In August 1973 Butler (W. Aust. Nat., 1975, 13: 78-80) saw four
Brown Boobies off Barrow I., which is 100 km west, and slightly south,
of Dampier Archipelago. The bird that I saw was 250 km south-west of
Barrow I. and 360 km south-west of Dampier Archipelago, the southern
limit of the recognized range (Serventy et al., loc. cit.) of the Brown
Booby in Western Australia.

— S. A. HALSE, 156 Lockhart Street, Como.

A further Mangrove Kingfisher record from Western Australia._

On July 23, 1978, while working from the Sydney University crocodile
research vessel, we collected a Mangrove Kingfisher Halcyon chloris at
15°29’S, 125°01’E in Saint George Basin, North-West Kimberley, Western
Australia. This species is additional to those listed for the Prince Regent
River Nature Reserve by Storr et al., Wildl . Res. Bull. West Aust
No. 3, 1975, and Burbidge and Fuller, W.A. Nat., 14, 1978. The specimen
is lodged in the collection of the Western Australian Museum (A 15594).
The bird was caught at late dusk in a mist net set across a tidal creek
through mangal. Surrounding vegetation was a closed-forest (10-13 m high,
90% projective foliage cover) of Camptostemon schultzii with a few Rhi-
zophora stylosa.

TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MANGROVE KINGFISHERS

LOCALITY

Crab

Creek

Kingfisher

Island

Cossack

Point

Cloates

St. George
Basin

Registered No.

A9286

A12621

IHLW939

H LW940

A15594

Date Collected

7.1.1961

31.7.1973

17.10.1917

14.6.1900

23.7.1978

Sex

—

Weight (g)

—

Bill (mm)

Wing (mm)

106

104

107

Tail (mm)

1 ength (mm)

—

260

225

250

268

Four previous Western Australian specimens of Mangrove Kingfisher
are available. The two in the collection of the Western Australian Museum
(Table 1) are reported by Smith. Johnstone and Dell, Wildl. Res. Bull. West.
Aust. No. 7, 1978. Both came from relatively small mangal blocks fringing
the Kimberley coastline; one from Crab Creek (17°59’S, 122°23’E) and
the other from Kingfisher Island (16°06’S, 124°04’E). A. R. McEvey was
kind enough to provide measurements (Table 1) of the other two, which
are in the H. L. White collection in the National Museum of Victoria.
These were collected at Point Cloates (22°43’S, 113°40’E) and Cossack
(20°41’S, 117°irE).

This work was funded jointly by the Department of Fisheries and
Wildlife, W.A., and the Sydney University.

* N. L. McKENZIE and J. K. ROLFE, W.A. Wildlife Research Centre,
Wanneroo, Western Australia.

159

Observations on the nest of the Singing Bushlark.—The air-strip at
Mitchell Plateau, North Kimberley W.A. is the haunt for quite a number
of individuals of the Singing Bushlark (Mirafra javanica); 30-40 birds are
usually to be seen at a time during maintenance work. In the wet season,
October to March, the strip is mown at monthly intervals. A tractor with
a P.T.O. driven slasher is used.

When mowing on March 23, 1979, 1 found three nests; on March 24
another five, and on March 26 four more; a total of twelve nests, ten of
these had three eggs or newly hatched chicks, one nest had two eggs and
another had one egg. In one area there were four nests, a check showed
these to be around 100 m apart.

The only indication of a nest would be when a bird flew from beneath
a clump of grass. All the nests were under the same species of speargrass,
a small round, domed nest with the side entrance at ground level. I lie
eight nests found on the first two days all contained eggs; two of these
nests I had mowed over and saw the parent fly off the eggs. On the next
run I covered these with grass which the parent readily accepted. After
a day off and starting again on March 26, on my first round 1 found a
nest which the mower had been over two days previously; as the mower
cuts 5 cm from ground level, the top half of the nest was missing and
three newly hatched chicks were completely exposed to the elements. No
effort had been made to reconstruct the nest. I his nest I also covered
with grass and again the parents tolerated the interference. 1 he nests were
checked on March 27. Each had chicks; except the nest which had one
egg, this now contained three eggs. In the nest with two eggs two nestlings
were present.

Rainfall during the past wet season was well below normal, until a
tropical low formed off the coast which subsequently developed into cyclone
Hazel; this low brought 340 mm of rain at the airstrip from March 7
to 10. Perhaps this stimulated the nesting to take place simultaneously

among so many individual pairs. ... ,

—J. A. SMITH, Maylands.

Some Mistletoes and Hosts from the Murchison and Wooramel Rivers,
W.A.—During April 13-15, 1979 visits were made to the Murchison River
(27°3l’S, 115°47’E) and the Wooramel River (25 47 S, 115 58 E) m West¬
ern Australia in order to examine the flora and fauna of these areas.
A brief survey of mistletoes (Loranthaceae) and their hosts were made at
the two localities.

1. Murchison River, (a) Amyema preissii (Miq.) Tiegh.-— recorded on
Acacia rostellifera and A. victoriae. Barlow, (Aust. J.Bot., 14, 1766:
421-499) notes this species usually parasitic on Acacia (19 species known
as hosts) but does not list them. The following Western Australian acacias
have been recorded as hosts for A. preissii (based on collections at the
W.A. Herbarium, PERTH): A. acuminata, A. blakelyh A. cyclops , A.
oswaldii, A. saligna, A. stenophylla and A. trachycarpa. (b) Amyema sp. •
an undetermined Amyema was collected from Eucalyptus microtheca (trees
of which were commonly growing along the banks of the river), (c) Lysuina
casuarinae (Miq.) Tiegh.—collected from Santalttm acuminatum. Bailow
(loc. cit.) records the following hosts— Casuarina glauca, Acacia anetira,
Exocarpos aphyllus, Hakea sp., and Melaleuca sp. Data on a specimen
in the W.A. Herbarium (PERTH) collected 9 ml. (14.4 km) E. of Wittenoom
(22°15’S, 118°27’E) (ACB 11527) during 1965, records S. acuminatum as
host of L, casuarinae, therefore this appears to represent a new host record.

2. Wooramel River. Mistletoes appeared to be uncommon in this
area despite the abundance of several Acacia spp. which could act as
suitable hosts, (a) Amyema fitzgeralclii (Blakely) Dans, collected from
Acacia acuminata. No other species of mistletoe were seen. Barlow (loc. cit.)
records the common host as A. anetira and other “ Acacia spp. Another
Western Australian host record is A. tetragonophylla (Cape Range, c.

22°06’S, 114°00’E, George 6563).

160

It is interesting to note the diversity of mistletoes and their hosts
within a small area at the Murchison River site. Published records of
mistletoe hosts appear to be scant and it is probable that many new records
will be made, especially in Western Australia. I would like to thank
Messrs. P. G. Wilson, B. R. Maslin and M. E. Trudgen (W.A. Herbarium,
PERTH) for assistance in plant identification.

-— T. J. HAWKESWOOD, Department of Botany, University of Western
Australia, Nedlands.

Sperm storage in Moloch horrid us. —A female Mountain Devil,
Moloch horridus, found just north of Carnarvon, was given into my care
at the beginning of November 1978. The lizard was allowed the freedom
of the whole of my fenced paddock, but preferred to stay in one restricted
area. Here it could be seen every day, feeding on ants.

On November 7 it started excavating a burrow into which it laid

eggs.

On January 11, 1979 it was seen digging again, about 10 metres from
the first burrow. Through mischance this second burrow was destroyed
by garden work on March 9. It then contained three eggs. One of these
was dried; the second was severely damaged; the third appeared to have
been attacked very recently by small white worms which had killed the
well-developed embryo. This egg was preserved in alcohol. Reports of a
double clutch in Moloch appear to be rare; it was recorded only once
by C. C. Snorn in his detailed studies of the breeding of captive Mountain
Devils (W. A list. Nat., 9 (7), 1965: 157).

The first burrow was opened up after three months and found to
contain nine dried up eggs.

The lizard disappeared soon after its burrow was destroyed, but
possibly may still be at large in my garden.

As there was no male Moloch in my garden it was evident that the
female had been able to store sperm over a considerable period.

This phenomenon of sperm storage has been recorded in reptiles
but, as far as I know, not hitherto in Moloch . I am indebted to Dr G. M.
Storr, of the Western Australian Museum, for providing the following
summary by Dr A. Bellairs (The Life of Reptiles, Weidenfeld & Nelson,
London, 1969, vol. 2, p. 419): “It has been known for some years that
in certain species of turtles, snakes and lizards the sperm can live in
the genital tract of the female for long periods. It is therefore possible for
a reptile to produce successive clutches of fertile eggs, usually diminishing
progressively in number, after a single insemination. Sperm from an
autumn mating can therefore be used for fertilising the eggs in the
following spring. Sperm survival for several months is probably quite a
common occurrence. There are instances, however, where living sperma¬
tozoa have been recovered from the oviducts, or fertile eggs have been
laid by isolated female captives after much longer periods: 4 years in the
case of a diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys cent rata) and a box tortoise
(Terrapene Carolina), 4i years in an indigo snake (Drymarchon corais) and
6 years in another colubrid, Leptodeira.”

There may be a biological advantage in the capacity to store sperm
in this species. Though conspicuous enough when met with in the bush,
Mountain Devils are not very often encountered, and almost always as
solitary, slow-moving individuals. Thus on a trip in the middle of Novem¬
ber 1978, from Leonora to the Warburton Range and back, a total dis¬
tance of some 1,450 km, driving slowly (in a landrover towing a caravan)
during daylight and closely observing the road, I saw only four widely
separated individuals. Possibly males and females may find each other
only occasionally; therefore a capability for sperm storage may compen¬
sate for infrequent opportunities of mating.

—G. A. PHILIPP, City Beach.

161

Breeding Records of the Grey Honeyeater in the Upper Lyons River
district.—On August 28, 1978, on stony ground along a mulga creek near
Jula Bore (23°39’S, 116°09’E) near Edmund Station, my attention was
attracted by a short, high-pitched jingling song being given by a small bird
flitting around the top of a curara bush A. tetragonaphylla. Through bino¬
culars, the songster and another bird close to it were identified as Grey
Honeyeaters Conopophila whitei. The short song-phrase, given both in the
air and when perched, was quite different from high, silvery contact calls
which I had heard from this species on a few previous occasions near
Wiluna. As 1 watched, one of the honeyeaters moved out towards me and
promptly dropped onto a tiny cup-shaped nest, which was suspended on
an outermost twig. Shortly afterwards, S. Bennett, J. Masters, V. Read
and I inspected the nest: a little over a metre from the ground, roughly
6 cm wide and deep, sparingly constructed of grass leaves held together
(mostly externally) by large sticky blobs of pure white seed covering, it
contained a single egg, which was white, marked with a broad corona of
reddish-brown spots towards the large end. We left the site and the birds
returned almost immediately, one again settling to brood. J. M. commented
that from the appearance of the egg, incubation had begun quite recently.
He was able to return to the site on a further three occasions during the
following eight days, each time encountering a brooding bird on the single
egg, which was obviously developed by the date of his last visit,
September 5.

The Grey Honeyeater is a very little known, but perhaps widespread
bird of dry Acacia woodland. Accounts by Whitlock (1910) and Wells
(1977) of breeding near Wiluna and Yalgoo respectively constitute the
only previous published details of nests and young. It is interesting to
note the close similarities in the form and position of the few nests yet
discovered. The two previously described clutches have both consisted of
two eggs rather than one, but as yet there is no published record of more
than a single young in or away from the nest. (See below).

Of just four Grey Honeyeaters which I have seen really well in life,
none has shown any sign of a white eye-ring or yellow'ish on the wing.
From the descriptions of Whitlock (1910) and Wells (1977) it seems that
these features may be confined to the juvenile. Adults in the field appear
as plain grey and white tiny honeyeaters, without any facial pattern.
Major field marks are few: head, back and breast cold grey, belly and
flanks white, wing-coverts and tertials plain greyish, primaries dark (often
contrasting with the white flanks), wing-tip projections short, whole of
rump and upper tail grey, with the tail feathers clearly tipped with white
when fresh, less so when abraded. On one of the birds I noticed the short
bill to be blue-grey at the base.

—PETER J. CURRY, Kclmscott.

At 0750 hrs. on September 1, 1978, 1 observed an adult Grey Honey¬
eater with one juvenile, approximately 20 km SW of Edmund Station along
the track to Hawk’s Nest Bore. The birds were in a narrow band of
open-scrub of Acacias to 4 m tall, growing along a dry creek bed. The
surrounding area was a tall shrubland dominated by Acacias and Eremo-
philas. The weather was fine and sunny with excellent light although the
birds were usually in shadow.

The adult bird was seen first. It flew to and fed a juvenile which had
been sitting quietly in dense foliage. The juvenile was free-flying although
the retrices and remiges were not fully grown. When approached by the
adult, it begged by gaping and drooped and fluttered its wings. No calls
were heard. Food items could not be identified with certainty but appeared
to be small insects gleaned from the foliage. Both birds were observed
for about two minutes, during which the juvenile was fed twice before
both flew and could not be relocated.

The adult bird was uniformly grev/brown above, darker on the pri¬
maries and tail and light grey below with a whitish throat. I did not observe

162

a light eye-ring on the adult, nor did I notice any yellowish wash on the
primaries. The juvenile was similarly coloured but had a narrow off-white
eye-ring and a fleshy light orange gape. I did not notice a yellowish wash
on the nape and throat as described by Serventy and Whittell (1976) and
Officer (1964), although I did not specifically look for this character.

—PETER MENKHORST, Victoria.
REFERENCES

OFFICER, H. R. 1964. Australian Honey eaters. Bird Observers’ Club,
Melbourne.

SERVENTY, D. L. & H. M. WHITTELL. 1976. Birds of Western Austra¬
lia. 5 th ed.

WELLS, A. G. & B. A. 1977. Breeding records of the Grey Honeyeater.
W. Aust. Nat., 13: 209-210.

WHITLOCK, F. L. 1910. On the east Murchison. Emu, 9: 181-219.

Observations on the Nest and Young of the Pheasant Coucal.—During
a botanical research trip to the Mitchell Plateau (lat. 14°47’S, long.
125°48’E.) N.W. Kimberley, in the wet season of February 1979, we
found two nests both containing young of the Pheasant Coucal (Centropus
phasianinus). The first was noticed on February 5 when we disturbed a
bird which flew up from the ground. After searching the vicinity the nest
was discovered in a tall, dense stand of grass up to 1.5 m high, growing
under the Fan Palm (Livistona eastonii) on grader spoil at the edge of a
disused grid line. The locality was where Airfield Swamp overflows into
the headwaters of Camp Creek. The nest was dome-shaped, 40 cm high
and constructed out of the two principal grass species (Themeda australis
and Coelorachis rottboellioides) growing there (Fig. 2). The centre of a
clump of Themeda had been pushed aside about 5 cm from the ground
to create a platform for the nest. On this a layer of Coelorachis 8 cm thick

Fig. 1.—Young of Pheasant Coucal after removal from nest. Scale
is in cm.

163

had been used to construct the floor of the nest which was lined with a
4 cm layer of Eucalyptus leaves. The walls and roof were made of stems
and leaves of Themeda, drawn together, with some Coelorachis loosely
woven into it. On both sides of the nest the grass had died and browned
off. On closer inspection it was found that the Themeda had been broken
over, some appearing cut, to create a camouflaged effect. The nest em
trance was oval shaped and approximately 10 cm in diameter.

The nest contained three chicks and some egg shell remnants. The

Fig. 2.—Nest of Pheasant Coucal in tall dense grass under the Fan
Palm Livistona east anil. Arrow indicates nest entrance.

164

chicks were black in colour and clothed in coarse white sheaths of the
developing feathers (Fig. 1). Their stomachs were grossly distended. When
one of the chicks was removed from the nest it opened its beak, spread
its wings and defecated a brown, foul-smelling fluid.

The second nest was located on February 6 in a dense stand of
Coelorachis up to 2 m high growing adjacent to the track leading from
the A max basecamn to Surveyors Pool. The dominant vegetation here
was an open forest formation of Eucalyptus tectifica (Grey Box), Eucalyptus
latifolia and E. confcrtiflora, with an understorey of Erythrophleum chloro-
stachys (Iron Wood) and Planchonia careya (Billy-goat Plum). When dis¬
turbed by the noise of our vehicle one of the birds flew clumsily up from
the ground into a nearby tree where the other parent was perched. They
both remained in near proximity to the nest (unlike the bird from the
previous nest) scrambling from branch to branch leaning down towards
us and screeching loudly.

The nest was similarly constructed to the previous one with the
addition of a platform-like area of trampled grass, covered with a layer
of Eucalyptus leaves, immediately outside the nest entrance. The nest
contained four chicks and one egg but no shell remnants. The chicks were
covered in white feather sheaths, the youngest chick being about half the
size of the eldest.

—K. F. KENNEALLY, Western Australian Herbarium: K. C. PIRKOPF
Nedlands and J. A. SMITH, Maylands.

OBITUARY

JOHN TROTT (1903-1978)

Our member John Callas Trott died at a convalescent hospital near
his home at Como on August 20, 1978. He was born in York on February
19, 1903. On his mothers side he was descended from the Clarksons,
early settlers in the State, some of whom came out in the ship Tranby in
1830. His father, W. H. Trott, arrived from England in 1889 and joined
the Perth branch of the Western Australian Bank, afterwards goine to the
bank’s branches at Geraldton and Cue. After education at the Guildford
Grammar School John Trott went as a jackaroo on Mr Vernon Hamersley’s
property, “Haseley,” in Toodyay. For a short time he farmed at Wongan

Mr John Trott, 1928

165

Hills before buying the farm at Corrigin where he remained until 1975,
Here his chief interest was his Bungaree sheep stud.

Mr Trott married Marina, younger daughter of Charles Harris (“Dio.
rite”), the well-known prospector and mining man whose exploits wcr^
narrated in Malcolm Uren's book, Glint of Gold (Melbourne, 1948). The\r
had two sons, Clive Trott, a farmer, and Peter Trott, a journalist.

In the Corrigin district he held executive positions in various organic
sations, including the Corrigin Agricultural Society, and was prominent it t
conservation activities, being appointed an honorary warden of fauna,
and made an honorary life member of the Tree Society. Another interest
was in divining for water, and he had some success in dry years on behalf
of local farmers.

However, it was in natural history circles that he attained enduring
fame as the discoverer of the famous Underground Orchid, Rhizanthelltj
gardneri . This happened in May 1928. The discovery was announced ir>
the West Australian newspaper of May 30 as follows: “What is regarded
as a unique Australian orchid, constituting a botanical discovery of great
moment, was found last week by a Corrigin farmer, Mr John Trott, whilst
cultivating some virgin land. He sent the curious specimen, which rescmbleq
in appearance a white cactus flower, to the Department of Agriculture whcii
it was immediately forwarded to Dr. R. S. Rogers, of Adelaide, who i$
the Australian authority on orchids. This week Dr. Rogers telegraphed
back intimating that it was undoubtedly a unique discovery, the plant be¬
longing to either a Malayan genus or one entirely new to science. Yester¬
day a further message was received from him stating that the plant repre¬
sented a new genus ‘as remarkable as the platypus’.” In next day s issue was
published a drawing of the plant by Mr C. A. Gardner, then assistant
botanist at the Department of Agriculture, and made at the behest of Mn>
E. H. Pelloe. Mr Gardner immediately visited Corrigin and in the West
Australian of June 12 he described his experiences. He brought back at
least four more plants, saying that “the plant is apparently extremely rarj;
and two days’ searching, aided by Mr Trott, only revealed two colonies. ’

It was described by Dr. Rogers as Rhizanthella gardneri, as a nevy
genus and species, in the Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia ,
1928, 15: pp. 1-7.

Mr Gardner exhibited a specimen of the orchid at the monthly meeting
of the Royal Society on June 12. This had come from Shackleton, about
28 miles north of Corrigin. A further extension of range, this time frorq
Goomalling, was reported in the West Australian of June 29 by Mr L.
Glauert, Curator of the W.A. Museum, to whom the specimen had been
sent. Mr Glauert suggested the orchid was really widespread and must
have frequently been met with by country residents but “because of ignor¬
ance of its true nature its existence had hitherto remained unrecorded.” He
appealed to readers that “if anyone comes across anything of this nature
which he or she does not understand, it be sent to the Museum, when
further information will be gladly given. That is one purpose of the institu¬
tion.” This advice was resented by Mr Gardner. That evening he had
been billed to exhibit specimens and drawings of the new orchid at the
monthly meeting of the W.A. Naturalists’ Club. However, as one mem¬
ber recorded the proceedings: “There was something in the nature of a
scene when Mr Gardner declined to say anything about the new orchid and
asked that the ‘Curator of the Museum’ do so in the light of his remarks
in the paper this morning asking that all such specimens be sent to that
institution. However Mr Glauert rose to the occasion and saved the situa¬
tion from developing any further.” This may have been the same incident
recounted by Mrs Rica Erickson in her History of the W.A. Naturalists’
Club (1974, p. 8).

There was more heartburning over the discovery of the new orchid.
Mrs Erickson in her history of the club relates that there were rumours
that such a plant existed before Mr Trott brought it to the notice of
knowledgeable authorities. Perth’s well-known amateur botanist of those

166

days, and orchid specialist, the pharmacist O. H. Sargent, a former president
of this Club, had inklings of the existence of such a plant. He had never
seen it himself but others had told him of it. He had asked people in the
\Vheatbelt to contact him if ever one was found. Mrs Erickson stated-
“He always lamented the fact that he was away on holidays at the time
and the honour of its discovery went to Gardner.” His original, quite
natural, chagrin developed over the years into a brooding obsession. Mrs
Erickson later amplified her discussion of the Sargent case, when as an
old man he visited her in Bolgart: “He unburdened himself one night
He was quite lucid in his faculties, although grown so deaf he could not
hear what I had to say and therefore my questions were useless. All I
could do was to listen to a very bitter, rather jealous man who still resented
the chance he had lost to be famous as the botanist who received and
named that orchid. As he said—he knew of the plant, guessed its import¬
ance, implored the finder to contact him immediately if another was found.
AH would have been well but Sargent went on a holiday—‘incognito’ (his
own word) to avoid the annoyance of having people solicit his professional
services as a chemist. Because of this ‘incognito’ holiday he could not be
contacted, so the specimens were sent to someone else. He reverted to this
story several times during the evening.” *lt is impossible to know whether
John Trott was ever aware of Sargent’s prior interest in the orchid. Mrs
Trott had not married John at that time and when she was informed of
the circumstances recently she said: “Had there been a promise about it,
knowing Jack 1 am sure he would have made every effort to locate Mr
Sargent. He has been in touch with members of the Department of Agri¬
culture for many years, sending them specimens to identify. They in turn
have conducted experiments on the farm so my guess would be that he
felt they were the right people to ask about it.” Mr Sargent never bore any
ill-will to Mr Trott over the matter. In fact John would frequently call
and see Mr Sargent in his shop at York when passing through to Perth.
Mrs Trott recalls that the orchid found in 1940 was put into a nutrient
jelly which Sargent had supplied for a specimen to be despatched to him
as soon as another one was found. However, it was damaged by fungus
before it reached York.

That country people had turned up the orchid long before the 1928
discovery, as Mr Glauert had surmised, was indicated by a letter published
in the Melbourne Herald of December 5, 1970 by Mr Wilkie J. Thomson,
then resident in Blackburn, Victoria. He said that his brother, Harold e!
Thomson, when farming in newly surveyed country “160 miles north of
Perth” in March 1914 (or 1912, the letter was ambiguous on this point)
ploughed up a strange brownish-like plant which was placed in a box and
sent to Perth “to a botanist. But it took days to reach Perth in that time
of train travel so it was no surprise to us that it was reported to be ‘some
kind of fungus’”. In 1916 he himself ploughed up some more in the same
place. When Mr W. J. Thomson later saw a drawing of the Underground
Orchid he recognized it as the same as their find. Mr Alex George, of the
Western Australian Herbarium, followed up the letter and ascertained that
the farm was in the Wubin district.

At the meeting of the Royal Society on December 11, 1928, Mr H. A.
Pittman, assistant plant pathologist at the Department of Agriculture, pre¬
sented a notable paper on the nutrition of the Underground Orchid. This
was published in the same volume of the Journal of the Society as Dr
Rogers’ paper (on pp. 71-79) and discussion on it fully reported in the
West Australian of December 13. Mr Pittman said that its nutrition “repre¬
sented the extreme development of a mode characteristic of the orchids
generally.” Rhizant/iella had no chlorophyll and no rooting system but a
special hair structure had been evolved to ensure the entry of a fungus “on
which the orchid had to be considered as parasitic.” Mr W. E. Shelton,
biology master at the Perth Modern School, pointed out that as the orchid
could not build up any food compounds itself “the question arose why did

. /ov* ^cS bi ^ a ?£: of °* H - Sargent by Rica Erickson was published In the W.A. Naturalist,
4 (d), lyoo: 41-45.

167

the fungus attack it all, because in its early stages it would have nothing
to offer?” Mr Pittman said the point raised was a fascinating one whose
solution depended on knowledge of the early history of the plant.

The year 1928 must have been a vintage year for the Underground
Orchid. According to the West Australian of May 11, 1978, the plant was
seen only four times subsequently, “in each case by a farmer clearing new
land. It was last sighted in 1959 near Babakin.” By a curious coincidence
the finder, Mr C. W. Bee. was a cousin of Mr John Trott. It was found
7 miles west of Babakin on May 23, 1959.

Mr Trott, naturally enough, never lost interest in his discovery. He
named his farm “Rhizanthella” after the orchid. In later years he sum¬
marised his field knowledge of the species: “All thirty-nine specimens
were found in association with Melaleuca uncinata. This Melaleuca can
stand waterlogging periods better than most plants. The soil was sandy-
surfaced but had a clay subsoil, some three to six inches. The area had
previously carried a fierce fire; whether this stimulates the orchid or not
I do not know. 1 am certain early and heavy summer rain is essential. The
general pattern is a rhizome from which several bracts and flowers
emerge at different times. From the tuber a stalk runs out some inches,
usually horizontal; the bracts and flowers form on the end of it. The
largest of the thirty-nine found in 1928 was one inch in the cupola and three
inches from the base of the cupola to the tips of the bracts. Ve.ry careful
observation was made on most of the specimens to see what was the
normal position of the orchid. They grow in colonies. The rhizomes look
permanent but are not. Every endeavour to propagate the orchid has
failed. From specimens I found embedded in clods of earth and other
evidence I do not think more than one-sixteenth of an inch of the tip of
the bract shows above the surface. That it must reach this position was
evidenced by a rabbit scratching spoil from a warren over a colony. The
stem was ten inches long; usually they were three to four and not straight.
The bracts were a faint purple when first turned up but exposure soon
made them and the little flowers inside the cupola a deep purple. One
specimen was found by my wife in 1940. Marking a growing colony proved
futile.”

Mr Trott visited the herbarium at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew,
on a visit to England in 1971 and was warmly welcomed. On his occasional
visits to Perth and attendance at meetings of the Naturalists’ Club he was
always a person of interest as the discoverer of a notable botanical find.
After retiring to Como Mr and Mrs Trott came to meetings of the Retired
and Leisured Group of the Club, which Mrs Trott still attends.

In May 1978 Mr Trott announced a reward of $100 to the first person
to find the orchid again. This has been awarded to Mr John McGuiness
of Munglinup, between Esperance and Ravensthorpe. He found the orchid
on May 26, 1979.

Dr. P. R. Wycherley, Director of Kings Park and Botanic Garden, has
provided the following note on pending research on the orchid:

"The World Wildlife Fund is seeking financial support to sponsor a project proposed
by the Botany Department, University of Western Australia and Kings Park and Botanic

Garden. A botanist would be engaged to Investigate the distribution of Rhizanthella

gardneri and the status of existing Reserves .and of areas which might be recommended
as Reserves for the Conservation of Flora and Fauna, especially of the Subterranean
Orchid. There are very few conservation reserves in the Wheatbelt corresponding to the

Avon Botanical District or System 4 and it is urgent that areas with such potential

are identified and protected. The recent discovery of R. gardneri at Munglinup in the
Eyre Botanical District or System 3 in the Environmental Protection Authority's classifi¬
cation, confirms that R. gardneri is not extinct and the project is not too late. It extends
the range of country to search for the plant and suitable areas for reservation. Once
again R. gardneri has been found in the course o f land clearing, which emphasises the
urgency of conservation in agricultural areas. It is hoped to launch the project function¬
ally in autumn 1980 so that there wili be full winter growing and spring seasons for
field work."

—D.L.S.

168

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14

February 29, 1980

No. 7

RUSHES, SEDGES AND REEDS

By G. G. SMITH, Botany Department, University of Western Australia.

How do botanists distinguish between Rushes, Sedges and Reeds?
When this question was put to me recently I must confess I was not too
sure of my answer, so hastily proceeded to research the topic. My search
revealed some interesting data on these vernaculars and on the plants to
which they are applied.

I he name Rush comes from the Old English rise, a West Germanic
word, from an Indo-European base meaning to bind, or plait (Grigson,
1974). The name is applied to plants of the family Juncaceae, having
straight naked “stems” or stalks (properly leaves) and growing in marshy
ground or on borders of ponds and rivers, or in CvStuarine marshes. It
denotes various species of Juncus, and is also applied to many plants of
different genera more or less resembling Juncus (Shorter Oxford Dictionary,
1973: A New English Dictionary, 1914).

The name Sedge comes from the Old English word seeg, German
segge, from an Indo-European base seq —‘to cut’, meaning plants with a
sharp or serrate leaf or stem edge which cuts the hand when the foliage
is grasped. In folk-lore the name is applied to various narrow-leafed plants
growing in wet places. It was also given to certain broad-leafed species
such as the Sweet Flag (Acorns calamus) and to the Wild Iris (Iris pseudo-
corus), but these species are better called Flags. Botanists apply the name
Sedge to plants of the genus Carex and to some other genera of the family
Cyperaceac, e.g. Cladium.

The name Reed comes down to us from the Old English hreod, derived
from the West Germanic languages. It is the first element of many names
of stream or riverside places such as the (Wiltshire) Rodbourne, ‘reed
stream . Also in folk-lore, the name of the tall straight stalks or stems
of the genera Phragmites , Arundo, and certain other plants of marshy
places.

Scholars since ancient times have written works describing plant spe¬
cies, often in regard to their herbal or other value to mankind. These
descriptions included various ways of notation of a name for a species,
and a description of its foliage and flowers. It was not until the eighteenth
century that botanists and zoologists developed and used consistently the
binomial system of nomenclature whereby a plant or animal was given
a generic and specific name.

1 he vernacular names of plants were commonly recorded by botanists
along with their descriptions of species, thus preserving the nomenclature
of the layman with that of science. For example, some species of the
sedge genus Cyperus have vernaculars such as Papyrus (C. papyrus), from
the classical latin name for this species: Galingalc (C. longus), a common
name used in England since the sixteenth century: and Nut Grass (C.
rotundus). However, the vernacular, Brown Cyperus (C. juscus) is simply
a translation of the Linnaean name for this species.

The relationship of the vernaculars Rushes, Sedges and Reeds to
plant taxonomy is broadly as follows: Rushes (Juncaceae and Rcstionaceae,
and some Cyperaceae), Bulrushes (Typhaceae), Flowering Rushes (Buto-

169

maceae), Sedges (Cyperaceae), and Reeds (Phragmites and Arundo in the
Poaceae (= Gramineae) and some species of Cyperus and Scirpus in the
Cyperaceae).

RUSHES

The family Juncaceae (Tussock Rushes) comprises 9 genera and abo ut
400 species most of which inhabit the temperate regions of the southe rn
hemisphere. The genus Juncus is world-wide but most of its species occur
in the northern Hemisphere.

In Britain and Europe many of the former uses for rushes have di c j
out. The foliage of species of J uncus and Scirpus was woven to make
bags, saddles, beehives and other commodities. The pith of some species
was used for rush lights before the introduction of candles. The Chaj r .
maker’s Rush (Scirpus americanus) is still woven to make rush-bottomed
chair seats. In the Middle Ages rushes were strewn on the floors of
dwellings instead of carpets. Edlin (1951) gives an attractive account 0 f
the many uses made of rushes, sedges, reeds and grasses in Great Britain.

Two genera of this family are native in South-Western Australia,
Luzula meridionalis (Field Woodrush) and about 13 species of J uncus.
The Giant Rush (J. pallidas) is a common and conspicuous species, grow¬
ing along creek banks and in marshy hollows where it forms large clumps
with foliage up to 2 m. Another rush which occurs in extensive commu¬
nities along the banks of our rivers and in estuarine salt-marshes is the
Shore Rush (J. muritinws), although most of the populations of this rush
are in fact the closely allied species J. kraussi. Other examples of attractive
and common rushes in South-Western Australia are the Jointed Leaf Rush
(J. holoschoenus) and the Toad Rush (J. bufonius).

The other large family of rushes is the Restionaceae, comprising
some 28 genera and 320 species, mostly occurring in South Africa and
Australia, with a few soecies in New Zealand, Chile and Indochina (Willis,
1966).

In Western Australia there are some 15 genera and 60 species, but
as the Australian taxa are presently under revision the above estimates
are now tentative. Only 5 of these genera have vernaculars, notably Restio
(Cord Rushes), Lepyrodia (Scale Rushes), Leptocarpus (Twine Rushes),
Lepidobolus (Chaff Rushes) and Hypolaena (Rope Rushes). Apparently
this family has not much stimulated wildflower enthusiasts nor botanists
to coin common names, despite the considerable diversity found in the
foliage and flowering scapes of the numerous species. Perhaps the current
upsurge in cultivation and propagation of native plants in Australian gar¬
dens will lead to giving many species common names. Certainly many of
our Restionaceae when in flower are attractive plants, and some species
have great potential as foliar foil for brightly coloured flowers in floral
arrangements.

Another family of rushes is the Typhaceae, with a single cosmopolitan
genus, Typha, comprising about 10 species inhabiting marshy and inundated
soils of temperate and tropical regions.

Typha is commonly known as the Bulrush, particularly in Australia,
but elsewhere it is also called the Cattail or Reedmace. In South-Western
Australia the Aborigines called it Yanget, hence the place names Yangebup,
Yanget Pool, Yangettee farm (at Coolup) and Yanchep. In eastern Aus¬
tralia it is also called by the Aboriginal name Cumbungi. The Bulrush is
readily recognisable by its tall strap-like leaves and its cylindrical inflor¬
escence of densely packed, minute brown flowers on a tall stalk.

Bentham (1878) cites the Australian species of Typha as T. angusti-
folia, but a recent revision of the Australian taxa (Briggs and Johnson,
1968) distinguishes three species, T. domingensis (Narrow-leaf Cumbungi)
and T. orientalis (Broad-leaf Cumbungi) both native to Australia, and the
exotic T. latifolia naturalised in a few localities in eastern Australia.

In Western Australia, T. domingensis occurs mostly in the Northern
Province where it inhabits permanent pools of the seasonally flowing

170

rivers or marshy sites. On the other hand, T. orientalis occurs in the South-
Western Province where it inhabits fens, swamps and sheltered embayments
of rivers. This species is a conspicuous element of the lakes of the Swan
Coastal Plain such as Lake Claremont (Butler’s Swamp), White Lake,
Herdsman Lake, and Loch McNess at Yanchep.

Both T. orientalis and T. domingensis commonly invade irrigation
systems in eastern Australia, obstructing water flow or preventing access
to water, and must be controlled by herbicides. Otherwise the Bulrush has
the merit of providing shelter and food for waterfowl and other wildlife
in natural lakes and fens (Sainty and Brayne, 1973).

The Butomaccae or Flowering Rush family originally comprised 6
genera distributed in Eurasia and tropical America. The American genera
have been removed to the family Limnocharitaceae leaving the mono-
specific Butomus umbellatus of temperate Eurasia. There is no evidence
of Butomus being naturalised in Western Australia.

The name Rush is also applied specifically to the genus Lomandra
(Mat Rushes) of the family Xanthorrhoeaceae, with some 46 species
distributed in Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea.

The species are perennial herbs mostly with radical tufts of narrow
caespitose leaves from an underground rhizome. Some species thus occur
in low thickets with much spreading, tangled foliage—a habit which
evidently suggested the vernacular name.

Notable examples of the 21 species occurring in Western Australia
are Lomandra purpurea (Purple Mat Rush) with dark purple inflorescences,
and the sweet-scented Lomandra odora (Fragrant Mat Rush).

Two of the western species are exceptional in their stature. Lomandra
hastilis has stout, short stems appearing above ground from the rhizome,
and bearing dense tufts of flat leathery leaves up to 130 cm long and
12 mm broad. The flowering spike may reach a height of 120 cm. Simi¬
larly, Lomandra ordii forms dense thickets of foliage, on stout, erect stems
with leaves up to 150 cm long and 10-20 mm broad. The paniculate flow¬
ering scape reaches up to a height of 150 cm. Oddly enough, these two
species lack vernaculars, probably because they are not well known to
wildflower observers, as each has a very limited distribution in south¬
western Australia.

I suppose we might appropriately call L. hastilis the Spear-fruited Mat
Rush since its tall fruiting scape suggests a spear. L. ordii could be called
Ord's Mat Rush as Baron von Mueller named this species in honour
of Sir Harry St. George Ord (1819-1885), a former Governor of Western
Australia.

SEDGES

The Cyperaceae or Sedge family is a large cosmopolitan one of some
90 genera and about 4,000 species. One of the classical examples of this
family is the Papyrus or Paper Reed or Egyptian Bulrush (Cyperus papyrus).
Yet, because of its cane-like flowering stalks it is called a Reed! However
many of the species of Cyperus are called Sedges of one kind or another.

The genus Cyperus has for many years featured in horticulture mainly
in the cultivation of the ornamentals Papyrus and the Umbrella Plant
(Cyperus altcrnifolius) grown in garden ponds and shade houses. Cyperus
rotundus (Nut Grass) is a common weed of lawns and damp places.

The Cyperaceae native to Western Australia comprise some 22 genera
and about 240 species. Eleven of these genera lack vernacular names,
eight are called Rushes, and three arc called Sedges.

The genera called Sedges of one kind or another are Carex (Sedges),
Lepidospermu (Sword Sedges) and Gahnia (Saw Sedges). The Coastal Sword
Sedge (Lepidospermu gladiatum) is common in coastal dunes of our South-
West coast. The Common Sword Sedge (L. longitudinale) is common in
fens bordering fresh water lakes in South-Western Australia. The Spreading
Sword Sedge (L. effusum) is another species commonly occurring in large

171

thickets in coastal fens and fringing coastal lakes and river estuaries.
The Coast Saw Sedge (Gahnia trifida) commonly forms a belt at the land¬
ward edge of coastal saltmarshes. The foliage of these sedges has only to
be grasped carelessly to appreciate their vernacular names.

The eight genera called Rushes are Schoenus (Bog Rushes), Scirpus
(Club Rushes), Cyperns (Leaf Rushes), Chorizandra (Brittle Rushes),
Caustis (Thick Twist Rush), Eleocharis (Spike Rush), Cladium and Baumea
(Twig Rushes), Fimbristylis (Fringe Rushes).

The following are some notable examples of these Rushes. The
Jointed Twig Rush (Baumea articulatum) inhabits local fresh-water marshes,
its tall cylindrical leaves having a smooth shiny surface when fresh, but
when cut and dried assuming a jointed appearance due to differential
shrinkage of the internal pithy tissue. Baumea juncea (= Cladium junceum
= Machaerina juncea) is the thin-leafed rush which occurs abundantly in
the extensive fens of geologically old lakes in South-Western Australia.
It is this species, along with other rushes and sedges, which is the source
of ‘cladium peat’ marketed in Western Australia by the horticultural trade.
The Knotted Club Rush (Scirpus nodosus) is a distinctive species inhabiting
not only marshes but also mobile sand dunes along the coast where it
effectively arrests drifting sand about its rhizomes and abundant fibrous
root system.

REEDS

As already mentioned, the name Reed is given to several marsh plants
with erect cane-like stems or culms coming from prostrate rooting stems
or rhizomes. Two genera of Reeds, Phragmites and Arundo are tall per¬
ennial grasses (Poaceae = Gramineae) with flowering culms growing
to several metres.

Phragmites has three cosmopolitan species, inhabiting marshy soils
and even extending down shore into shallow water of rivers and lakes.
The Common Reed (Phragmites australis = P. communis) (see Clayton,
1968) is wide-spread in Europe, Asia and America. In Western Australia
this species has been recorded from Midstream on the Fortescue River,
from the Moran River in the Kimberley, and from the town of Albany.
These communities are regarded as introduced and naturalised ones. How¬
ever the pan-tropical P. karka is native to northern Australia and has been
collected from Prince Regent River, Ord River, Hann and Fortescue dis¬
tricts where it inhabits permanent fresh water pools of the seasonally
flowing rivers and those of the gorges in otherwise arid country.

The other Reed-grass is the genus Arundo comprising 12 species dis¬
tributed in tropical and temperate regions of the world. Arundo donax
(Giant Reed or Danubian Reed) is a native of the Mediterranean Region,
India and Madagascar. This plant was used for many purposes by the
ancient peoples of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and the Sinai peninsula. The stem
was fashioned into walking sticks, fishing-rods, measuring-rods and musical
pipes, and is still so used today. Moldenke and Moldenke (1952) review
the opinions of scholars on the references to this Reed in biblical writings.

Arundo prefers marshy habitats but is cultivated in many less well
watered situations quite successfully. A variegated form of this reed is
widely cultivated as an ornamental, such cultivars being common in Aus¬
tralian gardens and as escapes in marshes close to urban areas, as for
example in the marshy places along the estuary of the Swan River.

This reed is often erroneously called a bamboo because of its super¬
ficial resemblance to some of the true bamboos. However, Arundo is of
the Tribe Arundineae along with Phragmites and Cortedaria (Pampas Grass)
whereas the bamboos are of the Tribe Bambuscae.

The most notable reed in history is undoubtedly the Papyrus or Paper
Reed. Papyrus grew abundantly along the banks of the Nile in ancient
times, but is now nearly extinct in lower Egypt, although still abundant
along the White Nile and in Nubia.

172

This plant was the source of the cellulose tissue of the pith of its
flowering stems from which the ancient Egyptians made paper to record
their history. The discovery of their writings or ‘papyri’ in Egyptian tombs
and of papyri from the excavations of the ancient cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii attest the tremendous importance of the Papyrus plant in
ancient civilisations about the Mediterranean (Moldenke and Moldenke
1952).

The ancient Egyptians and the Phoenicians also built reed-boats from
Papyrus, both small craft for commuting on rivers and large seagoing,
sailing craft which enabled them to navigate the Mediterranean and the
north-western coast of Africa. The Phoenicians are known to have sailed
in such craft down the Red Sea and around Africa, returning through the
Straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean.

Heyerdahl (1971) in his book, The Ra Expeditions, showed, by his
building of two papyrus boats in Egypt and navigating them by sail and
drift across the Atlantic from Morocco to the Barbados off South America,
how ancient peoples of the Mediterranean could have reached the New
World. Heyerdahl’s thesis is, of course, because of the striking similarities
between the many cultural features of the ancient civilisations of Asia
Minor, North Africa and South America, that ancient peoples of the
Mediterranean reached the east coast of South America by reed-boats
drifting on the Canary and North Equatorial sea currents.

The coining of vernaculars for plants would seem to be a dying art.
Perhaps there is little need for it amongst adult wildflower enthusiasts
who soon become fluent in botanical nomenclature with the aid of the
many publications available to them. However, common names of native
plants are still popular with many adults and particularly amongst children,
just as the vernaculars of exotic garden plants arc.

The use of the vernacular also helps laymen and botanists alike to
identify a plant community, such as a Sedge fen or a Reed marsh, by
evoking a sense of scene, as was the case when Keats wrote
O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms,

Alone and palely loitering?

The sedge has wither’d from the lake,

And no birds sing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank Dr. Neville Marchant of the Western Australian
Herbarium for reading my manuscript, and the Royal Western Australian
Historical Society for biographical data on Governor Ord.

REFERENCES

ASTON, H. 1. 1973. Aquatic Plants of Australia. Melbourne Univ. Press.
ATKINS, R. P., R. A. CONGDON, C. M. F1NL.AYSON, and D. M.
GORDON. 1977. Lake Leschenaultia—an oligotrophic artificial lake
in Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust ., 59: 65-70.

BEARD, J. S. ed. 1970. Descriptive Catalogue of West Australian Plants.

2nd cd. Perth, Soc. Growing Aust. Plants.

BENTHAM, G. 1878. Flora Australiensis. vol. 7. London, L. Reeve & Co.
BLACKALL, W. E. (rev. & ed. B. J. Grieve). 1954. How to know Western
Australian Wildflowers Part 1. Perth, Univ. West. Aust. Press.
BRIGGS, B. G., and L. A. S. JOHNSON. 1968. The status and relation¬
ships of the Australian species of Typha. Contrib. N.S.W. Nat. Herbar.
4: 57-69.

CHOO, T. S. 1969. A study of the Western Australian species of Lomandra
Labill. (Xanthorrhocaccac) with reference to their anatomy, taxonomy
and phylogeny. M.Sc. thesis Univ. W.A. 1969. (Unpublished).
CLAYTON, W. D. 1968. The correct name of the Common Reed. Taxon,
17: 168-69.

CONGDON, R. A., and A. J. McComb. 1976. The nutrients and plants
of Lake Joondalup, a mildly eutrophic lake experiencing large seasonal
changes in volume. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 59: 14-23.

173

EDLIN, H. L. 1951. British Plants and their uses. London, Batsford Ltd.
EVANS, G. A., and N. V. Sherlock. 1949. Butler’s Swamp, Claremont.
West. Aust. Nat., 2: 152-160.

GARDNER. C, A. 1952. Flora of Western Australia, vol. 1. part l-~
Gramincae. Perth, Govt. Printer.

GRIGSON, G. 1974. A dictionary of English plant names and some prO'
ducts of plants. London, Allen Lane.

HOWES. F. N. 1974. Dictionary of useful and everyday plants and their
common names. Cambridge, C.U.P.

HEYERDAHL, T. 1952. American Indians in the Pacific. Stockholm.
Allen and Unwin.

HEYERDAHL, T. 1968. Sea Routes to Polynesia. London, George Allen
and Unwin. . .

HEYERDAHL, T. 1971. The Ra Expeditions. Trans. Patricia Crampton.
London; Allen and Unwin.

LAWRENCE, G. H. M. 1962. Taxonomy of vascular plants. New York:
Macmillan.

McCOMB, J. A., and A. J. 1967. A preliminary account of the vegetation
of Lcch McNess, a swamp and fen formation in Western Australia.
J. R. Soc. W. Aust., 50: 105-112.

MOLDENKE, H. N., and A. L. MOLDENKE. 1952. Plants of the Bible.

Chronica Botanica, vol. 28. New York, Roland Press.

New English Dictionary. 1914. ed. J. Murray. Oxford, O.U.P.

SA1NTY, G. R., and R. F. Brayne. 1973. Aquatic Plants—Identification
Guide. Water. Conserv. & Irrigation Commission. N.S.W. Aust.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 1973. 3rd ed. Oxford, O.U.P.

WILLIS, J. H. 1962. A handbook to plants in Victoria . vol. 1. Melbourne.
Melb. Univ. Press.

WILLIS, J. C. 1977. A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns, rev.
H. K. Airy Shaw. 7th ed. Cambridge, C.U.P.

NOTES ON THE TUART TREE (EUCALYPTUS GOMPHOCEPHALA)
IN THE PERTH AREA.

By J. E. D. FOX* and S. J. CURRY**
INTRODUCTION

C. P. Brown of Wannanup wrote to The West Australian in 1978
(Letters, 24 August 1978):—

As a ratepayer and resident of Mandurah, I am becoming increasingly concerned
at the destruction of the surrounding bushlands by real estate developers. If
commonsense prevailed, roads could be constructed through bush and the
clearing of each block left to the discretion of the buyer. Even the lopping of
the bigger gum trees would be preferable to their complete destruction. It seems
to me that stupidity and greed are mainly responsible for the diminishing flora
and fauna and subsequently, the quality of life.

He was, of course, referring to the tuart, the big gum of Mandurah.
It is not only development per se which leads to the loss of trees in the
urban landscape. Any road or other opening alters the environment and
exposes trees to more sun, more wind and a greater edge effect than in
the natural condition in which trees have developed. In this paper we give
an account of the tuart tree and some of the environmental influences
affecting it in the metropolitan area, with particular reference to the effects
of insects and of fire on trees at three locations near Perth examined in
May 1978.

DESCRIPTION OF TUART

The timber of tuart is pale yellow, very hard and dense with a strong
interlocked grain (Gardner, 1952) and close textured. It is one of the
heaviest and strongest of Australian timbers with moderate durability; its
density is 990-1060 kg m^ (Hall et al. , 1975). In the State’s early history
tuart was valued for its toughness. It was used for keelsons, stern posts,

•Biology Department, W.A. Institute of Technology.

••Entomology Division, W.A. Department of Agriculture.

174

175

-Location Map. This includes the extremes of distribution mentioned in the text; a, b, c are the localities sampled.

bridge supports, shafts and wheelwright’s work and other applications
where great strength, solidity and durability were required (Gardner, 1952).
It was used until recently in the construction of railway wagons and
earlier provided the pins to support telegraph insulators. Gardner also
notes that the timber is reasonably termite resistant and is stronger than
that of wandoo. It has the disinctive feature of complete lack of corrosive
effect on metal objects such as bolts or dog spikes (Hall et at., 1975).

The flowers yield a profuse good quality nectar and tuart honey i s
light coloured, of a pleasant flavour, and fine grained when candied (Gard¬
ner, 1952). Nectar yields are affected by damage to the flower buds caused
by the tuart bud weevil (see below).

DISTRIBUTION OF TUART

Tuart occurs quite close to the ocean at a number of localities where
shelter from the sea is afforded by high dunes. It is not found on the
primary dune nor on the highly calcareous thin sands over limestone
which occur as bands parallel to the coast. Its main occurrence is on the
soil associations Karrakatta, Cottesloe and Yoongarillup. The first two are
components of the Spearwood dune system in the vicinity of Perth. The
Yoongarillup replaces Cottesloe south of Bunbury and may perhaps be
the critical factor limiting tuart distribution to the south. Bettenay et al.
(1960) show the Karrakatta as terminating at Sabina River (Fig. 1) whereas
the Yoonagarillup Association continues westward almost to Carbunup
Brook. In the metropolitan area tuart may be found up to 8-9 km inland
from the ocean. North of Pinjar. and particularly in and around Yanchep,
tuart extends into State forest. North of the Moore River it is generally
confined to favourable topographic and edaphic combinations along the
western boundary of State forest within about 6 km of the ocean (Havel,
priv. comm.) It shows some tendency to follow rivers and is found by
the Moore River at Cowalla 20 km inland. Elsewhere it is found at locations
along the Canning River to 10 km inland, by the Swan River to 16 km
inland and near Ravenswood on the Murray River 20 km from the ocean.

AREAS EXAMINED

Three localities were selected for examination (Fig. 1). The most
northerly location was inland of Burns Beach, north-east of Lake Joon-
dalup in the Wanncroo area about 25 km north of Perth (Fig. 2). Here
tuart was found at 4.2 km from the ocean (site 1) and extended inland to
8.15 km from the ocean (site 2). A further 8 sites were selected between
these extremes. Land clearing along Neaves Road did not permit con¬
firmation of whether or not tuart occurred naturally to the east of Pinjar
Road. At each site a plot containing at least one large tuart was considered
and a total of 17 trees was examined.

The second location was the Bold Park area at City Beach. The area
examined here closest to the ocean was < 1 km from the beach at the
corner of Oceanic Drive and West Coast Highway. A further 4 sites were
selected within Bold Park in the vicinity of Reabold Hill, and the site
furthest inland (site 6) was south of Underwood Avenue opposite Birkdalc
Street, about 5.6 km from the beach. Tuart at this general latitude re¬
appears further inland at Kings Park, about 9 km from the ocean. A total
of 39 tuart was examined.

The most southerly location was the Kwinana area inland along
Thomas Road. The western-most site (4) was just west of the railway and
1.8 km from the ocean. The eastern-most site (1) was located 2 km north
of Thomas Road along Johnson Road at 8.5 km east of the ocean. A
total of 20 tuart trees was examined.

Thus a total of 20 study sites at 3 latitudinal localities are discussed.
The 76 tuart trees were measured for the physical dimensions of height,
stem and crown diameter. Crown health was scored on a six-point scale
from 0 (dead) to 5 (full crown). Soil samples were analysed from each site.
The presence of insects was recorded, signs of fungal damage were noted,
and the recent fire history of each area considered.

176

STATUS OF TUART IN STUDY AREAS

j u 5!j occurred in ‘woodlands’ or ‘open forests’ in the sense of Specht
(1970). There was a tendency for taller trees to occur further south (Fig. 3).
All areas examined were far from natural in their present condition. Felling,
grazing and fires had all affected the stands to various degrees.

Soils

AH sites were in the Spcarwood dune system of Bettenay et al., (1960)
with 13 sites on their Cottesloc soil association and 7 on the Karrakatta.

c. Approximate topographic and elevational positions
Burns Beach Transect

altitude
(m)

60
30

0 1 2 34567 89

km from ocean

Fig. 2.—Burns Beach area Wanneroo showing sites examined in relation
to soils, fire and topography.

177

Representative soil data are given in Table 1 for the Burns Beach sites and
an extract from the map of Bettenay et al., (1960) is given as an inset to
Fig. 2 where: Q is Quindalup Association (coastal, white calcareous sand).
H is Herdsman Association (organic swamp soils). Ct is Cottesloe Associa¬
tion (shallow sand over aeolianite). K is Karrakatta Association (deep sand
over aeolianite). B is Bassendean Association (grey and yellow sand dunes).

The more detailed Shire of Wanneroo map, forming the main part
of Fig. 2, suggests that all sampled sites fell in the Karrakatta Association
and that all except site 2 fell on yellow/brown sands. No tuart was observed
on the Bassendean Association though the ‘grey phase’ of the Karrakatta
Association may well be an intermediate type of soil differing only in
having limestone at depth. No tuart was observed on the soils mapped
as ‘exposed limestone over shallow sandy soils’ which may be taken as
being part of the Cottesloe Association.

Soil texture was sand or loamy sand at all sites. Soil colours in the
Burns Beach area were mainly brownish (Table 1) while the Bold Park
sites in general had greyer soils and Kwinana sites 2 and 3 were yellowish
with 1 and 4 being brown to greyish brown.

Fig. 3.—Percentages of assessed trees at each locality in height classes.

Carbonates were detected with dilute HC1 in samples from site 4 Burns
Beach and site 4 Bold Park, both of which sites had a slightly higher pH
than others at those locations. The mean pH ranged from 6.2 to 8.8. Sur¬
face pH and calcium content tended to be higher than for 30 cm samples.
There was little trend in percentage soil moisture but percentage organic
matter was generally higher for surface samples.

Communities

In this study particular emphasis was placed on presence of tuart
regeneration, other cucalypt species and shrubs. Herbaceous plants, par¬
ticularly annuals, were dealt with indifferently as most of the field work
occurred at a time when these were neither conspicuous nor readily identi¬
fiable (April-May 1978). Several sites were severely infested with introduced
annuals.

Table 2 provides an indication of frequency of eucalypts and the
more abundant subsidiary trees and shrubs. Despite the inherent bias in
selection of sites for tuart presence, both jarrah and marr; were frequently
encountered. Subsidiary tree species found with tuart were mainly the
three banksias Banksia attenuata, B. grandis and B. menzicsii and Casuarina
fraserana.

178

TABLE 1.—SOIL CHARACTERISTICS BURNS BEACH STUDY AREA.

co®
•2 « c3
— to *-
o'5o2
W °0 «

< *

CO O)

O E

o E

EQ?

E -o

5 .*
2 £
CD Q

E -o

o> 2?
□ 0

CM CM
CM t~

§ ?

— CO
CM CO

o £
Q 2

-* 5

co 2
Q CD

co co
co co

E E

CO CO

co co
co in

$ $

co co

| $

O) co
co cd

>• >*

E E

CO CO

in in

c $
5 o
2 75
CD >-

CM a>

■m- in

CM -M;

cd cd

CM CM
*- CM

i ?

co in

cd CM

E c

CO CO

c $
5 °
P TK

cd cd

h- co

CM CM

E E

CO CO

CM CM

—

CO CM

•>. %

CD O

CD -Q

E -o

-- CD

c ct
co co

CO CO

179

Carbonates detectable on addition of HC1 to soil.

Pig 4.—Scoring system for crown health status.

TABLE 2 .— ASSOCIATED SPECIES

Species

Present

Number

Frequent*

of sites
Abundant*

Total sites

Large trees

Eucalyptus gomphocephala

E. calophylla

E. marginata

Subsidiary trees

Banksia attenuata

—

B. grandis

—

B. menziesii

Casuarina fraserana

Shrubs

Acacia cochlearis

—

A. pulchella

A. saligna

Dryandra sessilis

Jacksonia furcellata

J. sternbergiana

Macrozamia riedlei

Melaleuca heugelii

—

Xanthorrhoea preissii

•Frequent: 10-49 individuals, ‘Abundant > 50, per 0.03 ha sample.

180

Crown Health

All tuart trees were scored for crown health as in Fig. 4. This system
allows progressive stages in crown deterioration to be recorded and indi¬
vidual large trees to be compared. We arc confident that loss of foliage
can be largely attributed to the effects of fire and insect damage to be
discussed below.

The categories used are more or less coincident with the scale used bv
Beard (1967) viz:— y

Present Study
0 Dead

1 Bare branches

2 Sparse crown

3 Receding crown

4 Staghead

5 Full crown

Beard (1967)

Dead

Died back to base

Died back to 0-1/3 of height

Died back to 1/3-2/3 of height

Stagheaded

Full foliage

At only 8 of the 20 sites examined was crown health of the largest
tree present of category 4 or 5 (Table 3). Two large tuart at Kwinana
site 3 scored 1 only, with one other scoring 4. In general trees with larger
crowns scored higher on crown health. Evidence of possible fungal patho¬
gens at work was noted at sites 4, 7 and 9 of the Burns Beach set. Here
patches of dead understorey trees and shrubs suggested presence of the
dieback fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi or the honey fungus Armillaria
tnellea.

INSECTS ON TUART

A large range of insects attack tuart. In the following account these
are put in three damage groups: firstly damage to flowers, then to wood
and finally defoliating species.

(A) Damage to flowers

Tuart bud weevil Haplonyx tibialis * Curculionidae. An account of
this interesting creature was given by Newman and Clark (1924) and
Jenkins (1972).

TABLE 3.—CROWN HEALTH STATUS OF LARGEST TREE AT EACH SITE.

Locality

Site

Largest tree

Number of
tuart trees
examined
per site

Crown Health
0-5)

Height Crown Diameter
(m) (m)

Burns Beach

Bold Park

Kwinana

*Not tibialis

as in Seddon,

1972, page

118.

181

Its effects have been observed from at least 1880. Between November
and April numbers of terminal bud bearing twigs may be found around
the base of the trees. The adult weevils may be found at all seasons of the
year, they are about 6 mm long and 4.5 mm broad with the females larger
than the males. The colour is brownish with two lighter bars across the
front of the wing covers. The snout is half as long as the body and the
front legs are twice as long and stout as the second and third pairs.

The female drills a hole in the capsule of the flower bud and deposits
a single egg. The hole is then plugged with tissue. The weevil may then
repeat the process with other buds on the same twig. It then returns along
the twig and cuts it off or ring barks it. The twig may fall during the cutting
or it may persist on the tree for some time. The weevil may also cut off
bud bearing twigs without laying any eggs in the buds or cut off twigs
some of whose buds have not been drilled.

The white, elongate-oval egg is less than 1 mm in length. I he egg
hatches in 8-12 days in the fallen flower bud. The larva feeds in the top
part of the bud for some four months. As it grows it assumes the typical
weevil appearance and remains curled up in the bud. Prior to pupation
the larva bores into the basal part of the bud. The pupa is naked, white
and very active when disturbed. Pupation lasts about a month then the
adult cuts its way out of the base of the flower bud.

Newman and Clark (1924) observed a parasite of the tuart bud
weevil. This was a species of Braconid wasp of the genus Iphiaulax which
oviposits an egg into the body of the developing weevil larva within the
flower bud. A small maggot hatches and feeds on the host destroying it
prior to the pupal stage.

The tuart bud weevil is found throughout the range of the species
though it seems to cause more damage at the present time in the Perth
area and at Yanchep than it does further south.

It is not known whether infestation is at higher levels in years of
dense blossom though clearly the possibility of collecting seed should be
higher following heavy flowering. No observations are available on the
relative numbers of adults in relation to the wetness of winters. Tuart bud
weevil damage was noted on trees at sites 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10 at the Burns
Beach locality and for sites 1 and 10 was of particular importance as
these two had only recently been burnt (April) suggesting that debudding
is not inhibited by summer fires.

Other weevils, of the genus Catcisarcus, which are mainly confined to
Western Australia, feed as adults on leaf edges. These are relatively large,
spiny, wingless and black/grcen in colour. The larvae live in the soil
on roots. Though of nuisance value only they are found frequently on tuart.

A number of Twenty-eight Parrots (Bamardiits zonarius) as well as
a few Red Wattle-birds (Anthochaera carunculcita) were observed in tuart
trees near Lake Preston causeway in April 1977. These appeared to be
feeding on insects on twigs and in bark. A large amount of fallen blossom
(on twigs) was observed under the trees after the feeding event.

(B) Damage to Wood

Tuart borer Phorocantha impavida Cerambycidae.

Bark discoloration on branchlets may indicate the presence of tuart
borers. Adults of this longhorn beetle emerge from September to December
with a flush in the Perth area in October in alternate years. They survive
for only a week to mate and oviposit and arc active night fliers. Eggs are
laid in cracks in the bark and the larvae hatch within a few weeks. These
bore under the bark for 12 to 18 months before pupating in the sapwood.
This stage is indicated by the presence of one plugged hole and an adjacent
un-plugged hole on the surface of the sapwood.

The main effect of this insect is ring-barking leading to death. Trees
from 3-4 years of age can be attacked leading to cpicormic growth
lower down the stem. Younger trees die from this form of attack faster

182

than bigger, older ones (Powell, priv. comm.) Large trees are attacked in
the smaller branches and many cases of stag-headed tuart are attributable
to the tuart borer. The borer seems able to attack apparently healthy trees.
There is every suggestion that environmental changes mav have increased
the incidence of this form of damage.

Many tuarts in the Perth metropolitan area bear conspicuous dark
brown stains on many of the smaller branches as a result of borer attack.
It is not, however, an entirely recent phenomenon as very high losses to
planted tuart were attributed to the borer in 1939 (Wycherley, priv. comm.)

A related species Phoracantha semi punctata occurs in cucalypts in all
states ot Australia and has also been introduced to Israel (Britton, 1970).
It may attack dead trees of tuart and has a life cycle of one year with
emergence during summer.

Two other types of Ccrambycids occur as dead wood borers in tuart.
These are Coptocercus and Bethelium whose larvae bore under the bark
so that it comes away from the stem.

Stem girdler Cryptophasa unipunctata Lepidoptera.

The stem girdler attacks a number of species. The adult moth lays
eggs on the bark. On hatching the larvae feed on bark and bore into the
centre or the stem then they tunnel down the centre for 5 cm. The openings
to the tunnel and bark galleries are covered in a web meshed with masti¬
cated bark fragments. Smaller branches are ring barked and considerable
damage to stems up to 15 cm diameter may occur. The larvae shelter in
the tunnel during the day, emerging to feed at night. This insect may
cause stag-headedness following some pre-disposing weakening of the
tree, e.g. fire or drought.

Moth larvae, Culama sp. (Cossidae) bore under the bark usually
following the tuart borer. The pink coloured caterpillars produce brown
frass particles which cause the bark to become detached from the sap wood.
In conjunction with P . impavida these larvae, which bore for only a few
months with an annual life cycle, contribute to ringbarking and death.

Pin-hole borer Atractocerus kreuslerae Lymexylidae.

These beetles emerge between December and March, living as adults
for a few days only. Eggs are laid in wounds or fire scars, dry areas usually
some years old and already deteriorating. The larvae bore into the heart
wood mainly horizontally, ejecting frass strings through the entrance holes.
They feed on a fungus which grows on the inside of the gallcrievS and
remain as larvae in the wood for several years. When full-grown they
return to the surface of the wood to pupate behind plugged holes. Damage
is confined to the horizontal zone of wood near the original wound.

Leaf damage to young trees is caused by a range of insects, including
the weevils referred to above. Caterpillars of the pasture looper (Ciampa
sp., a moth in Geometridac) occasionally defoliate young trees in or near
old pastures. The tuart miner (Nepticula sp., a moth in Nepticulidae)
attacks the lower leaves of young trees in the Ludlow area during July-
August. Larvae mine the leaf tissue causing them to brown off and die.
The damaged tissue falls to the ground where the larvae pupate in the soil
to emerge as minute moths some ten months later. Leaf miner damage
was observed at sites 4, 6, 7, 9 in the Burns Beach locality, with damage
particularly severe at site 6. Christmas beetles (Scarabaeidae) defoliate gums
in Eastern Australia and have been implicated in dieback (Anon., 1979).
We have no record of this in connection with tuart. Particularly severe
damage was caused to young tuart plants at the WAIT field trial area in
Autumn 1979 (May/June) by the leaf blister sawfly Phylacteophaga frog-
gatti (Pergidae). The plants affected were in pots and 50-100 cm tall.
A number of planted Eucalyptus species on the WAIT campus suffered
severe leaf blister and necrosis on foliage lower than 7-8 m only.

Spitfires are the sawfly larvae which congregate for protection (Perga
spp., of the Pergidae). These may do considerable damage to young trees

183

and regrowth between late winter and early summer, though affected trees
are usually scattered. Pupation occurs in the soil beneath the affected tree.
Parasitic wasps are believed to be important in controlling numbers and
hence preventing large scale damage.

Defoliating beetles (Paropsis spp. of the Chrysomclidae) are serious
pests of eucalypts in New South Wales and New Zealand. In W.A. they
do not cause extensive damage probably due to parasitic control as with
Perga spp. Both adults and larvae feed on leaves: the beetles scallop leaf
edges while the larvae chew through the leaf surface and tissues.

Sucking bugs of the order Hemiptera are found on tuart foliage and
suck sap causing at least localised death. These include leaf hoppers
(Eurymeliadae, Membracidae), shield bugs (Pentatomidac) and lerps (white,
waxy larvae of Psyllidae). Bugs seem to be quite numerous at Ludlow
where their attacks could contribute to dieback.

Natural regeneration south of Mandurah frequently suffers from in¬
sect larval attack and some damage has been noted at all times of the
year. Insects have proved troublesome in Forests Department trials by
deforming seedlings and grasshoppers may also do damage (Keene and
Crackncll, 1972).

In the present study generalised insect damage to foliage (apart from
leaf miner attack referred to above) was noted at most sites. It was more
noticeable on trees at Burns Beach sites 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and on
young tuart at site 1 of the Kwinana locality. Epicormic shoots at Bold
Park sites were most affected.

THE EFFECTS OF FIRE

Tuart trees are affected by fire to varying extents, with leaf scorch
the minimum level of damage to the crown. Leaves will be shed and new
ones produced. When the branchlets are damaged, however, new growth
comes from older wood with thicker bark. Repeated damage to the
crown may lead to stagheadedness, and though most stagheaded trees
in the Metropolitan area owe their appearance to borer attack, it is likely
that fires also play a part.

Fire frequency also affects survival of regeneration. Freedom from
competition and fire are necessary until the trees are established. Sterili¬
sation of the soil by heat ensures there is no herbaceous material close
to the tuart growing on ashbeds and the fire removes fuel sources. At
Ludlow young tuarts on ashbeds will get away under these conditions
after 1 or 2 years (McKinnell, priv. comm.)

The incidence of fire has been reasonably elucidated for the Burns
Beach Road sites with assistance from Wanncroo Shire and the local
Forests Department staff (Fig. 3). Tuart at sites 3, 4, 5 and 6 suffered
fire damage in 1973 from which they had recovered poorly by the time

of assessment. Fires following cyclone Alby (April 4, 1978) destroyed

some 50 per cent of crowns at sites 1 and 10, which had also suffered
fire the previous summer. Only at sites 2 and 7 in the Burns Beach area
were crowns scored as high as health category 4. No tuart regeneration
was observed at any of the 10 sites. It is of some interest that sites 7 and 9
with highest species numbers for the Burns Beach set had considerable
numbers of Dryandra sessilis (46 and 58 individuals within a 10 m radius
of the tallest tuarts). This species is one of several which may be of some
utility in dating fires as well as being an indicator of community change
and succession (Marchant, 1975). Clearly the 1977 fire had not been

very intense at these sites but may still have removed any tuart seedlings

that may have been present.

Early photographs of the Bold Park area suggest that prior to devel¬
opment there was a dense tuart/jarrah stand with full crowned tuart trees.
A photograph taken about 1918 shows the plank road or switchback
under construction, about 200 m from site 2. Fire damage to the trees
here in 1978 was extensive, with the most recent fire in the preceding
summer leaving at least two large trees with new foliage at the base only

184

having destroyed epicormic growth from several others. It is possible
that, here at least, jarrah is persisting rather better than tuart.

Site 1 at Bold Park, in a highly urbanised setting, showed no signs
of recent tire damage. However it, as with much of the main park area,
was overrun with exotic weeds and contained no tuart regeneration. Most
r , ot ' ier s * tes this locality showed extensive fire damage.
Wildfires lit by vandals arc a major problem in the Bold Park/Reabold
Hill area.

I he Kwinana sites showed an interesting pattern of frequency of
fire related to land development. Site 4 in an industrial area had been
regularly burnt annually; 2 and 3 in or near residential areas were burnt
frequently; while site 1, somewhat remote from development had been
burnt less frequently. The presence of old charred logs at the latter site,
coincident with occurrence of tuart regeneration (the only example re¬
corded from all ^.0 sites), suggests that sufficient litter had accumulated
to create ashbed conditions conducive to regeneration about 2 years earlier.

CONCLUSIONS

lop death of tuart in the metropolitan area is usually a result of
insect damage and may be compounded by other environmental influences.
In areas subjected to burning loss of crown foliage may predispose trees
to insect attack or fungal pathogens. However we consider that fire is the
main influence on degradation of tuart woodlands as a whole.

Progressive stages of degradation can be postulated. Firstly large
trees will eventually burn away. This may occur over a protracted time
period. It may well be the natural way in which old senescent trees would
disappear in the absence of modern civilisation on the coastal plain.
Secondly the normal species composition of the tuart communities undergo
alterations which further inhibit the chances of new tuart seedling estab¬
lishment. Both types are operating simultaneously. As fires have increased
in frequency the following detrimental consequences have occurred:

(a) young seedlings burnt before they are tall enough to resist fires;

(b) introduced annuals favoured which provide competition (for mois¬
ture in particular) for tuart seedlings, and which increase the risk
of annual burning by producing more inflammable material to
further accentuate (a);

(d) senescence of trees of seed-bearing size is hastened as crown
regrowth may be burnt back. Coupled with bud weevil attack
(on fewer available food sources?) seed production is reduced.

Clearly if all foliage is lost in a fire then with good leaf recovery
from epicormic growth new seed will not be produced until several years
after the fire (Gill, 1975). Fires which occur when there is no seed in the
crowns or when the seedlings are small are clearly of no benefit to
regeneration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The field work reported herein was undertaken by final year Biology
students of the W.A. Institute of Technology in May 1978 as part of the
unit Ecology 301. We also wish to thank the people mentioned in the
text for comments.

REFERENCES

ANON. 1979. Requiem for the rural gum tree. Ecos, 19, 10-15.

BEARD, J. S. 1967. Natural woodland in Kings Park. W.A. Nat., 10 (4)

77-84.

BETTENAY, E., W. M. McARTHUR and F. J. H1NGSTON. 1960. The

soil associations of part of the Swan coastal plain, Western Australia.

C.S.I.R.O. Soils and Land Use Series No. 35.

BRITTON, E. B. 1970. Coleoptera. Chapter 30 in The Insects of Australia.

C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne University Press.

185

GARDNER, C. A. 1952. Trees of Western Australia. Tuart and Illyarrie.
Bulletin 1096, W.A. Department of Agriculture.

HALL, N., R. D. JOHNSTON and G. M. CHIPPENDALE. 1975. Forest
Trees of Australia. Aust. Govt. Publ. Serv., Canberra.

JENKINS, C. F. H. 1972. Insect Pests of Forests (3). The tuart bud weevil
and the gregarious gall weevil. Bulletin No. 3178, W.A. Department
of Agriculture.

KEENE, D. J. and E. M. CRACKNELL. 1972. Regeneration of tuart
forest. Forest Notes, 10 (l) 14-17.

MARCHANT, N. 1975. Lakeland plant ecology, pp. 32-36. Seminar: The
Peel-Preston Lakelands. University of Western Australia, Perth.

NEWMAN, L. J. and I. CLARK, 1924. The tuart bud weevil (Haplonyx
tibialis). Leaflet No. 145, W.A. Department of Agriculture.

SEDDON, G. 1972. Sense of Place. University of W.A. Press, Perth.

SPECHT, R. L. 1970. Vegetation. In The Australian Environment.
C.S.I.R.O.: Melbourne Univ. Press.

POLLEN LOADS ON HONEYEATERS IN A
GREVILLEA ROGERSON1ANA THICKET SOUTH OF SHARK BAY
By STEPHEN D. HOPPER, Western Australian Wildlife Research Centre,
P.O. Box 51, Wanneroo 6065.

ABSTRACT

Three Singing Honeyeaters (Meliphaga viroscens) and one Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater
(Acanthagonys rufogularis) were mist-netted in a Grevillea rogersoniana thicket■ on Nature
Reserve 36127 25 km SW of Cooloomla homestead on September 17 1979. Pollen loads
on both species of honeyeater consisted of large quantities of Diplolaena microcephala
grains together with smaller amounts of Grevillea rogersoniana and Banksia ashbyi Q^ains.
The honeyeaters appeared to concentrate on G. rogersoniana and, to a lesser extent
B. ashbyi, in their foraging for nectar. No feeding on D. microcephala was seen during
60 minutes observation In the early morning peak of feeding activity. The discrepancy
between observed honeyeater foraging preferences arid the relative proportions o
pollen of the three plant species in pollen loads illustrates one of the divergent ways
in which plants may compete for service by common pollinators.

INTRODUCTION

Prominent among the many aspects of honeyeatcr-plant relationships
deserving study in Western Australia arc questions concerning the pollen
loads picked up by honeyeaters when foraging at flowers. A few recent
investigations have shown that pollen of several plant species (usually 3-5,
sometimes up to 12) may be carried by honeyeaters in a given habitat,
but that pollen of one or two species normally predominates in the load
(Paton and Ford, 1977; Burbidge et al., 1979; Hopper, 1980). Moreover,
there is limited evidence available indicating that the proportions of
pollen of each species carried by honeyeaters are not necessarily equiva¬
lent to the frequency at which the birds visit the flowers of each plant
(Hopper, 1980). This suggests that plants differ in their ability to transfer
pollen to honeyeaters. The nature of such differences and the selective
regimes under which they arise warrant careful study.

The present publication reports on a small investigation of pollen
loads on honeyeaters made in September 1979 while I was assisting in
a biological survey of a 50,000 ha Nature Reserve (Department of Lands
and Survey No. 36127) located between Shark Bay and the Lower Mur¬
chison River. This Nature Reserve contains populations of a number of
plants endemic in the region, including Grevillea rogersoniana ( Proteaceac),
a shrub up to 3 m tall that has pink flowers arranged in erect inflorescences
that exude copious amounts of nectar.

Initial observations at a campsite in a G. rogersoniana thicket on the
reserve 25 km SW of Cooloomia homestead (27°08 S, 114 D 08'E) indicated
that large numbers of Singing Honeyeaters (Meliphaga virescens) and a few
Spiny-cheeked Honeyeaters (Acanthagenys rufogularis) were feeding on the
nectar of the Grevillea. The thicket contained an understorey of several
shrubs including Diplolaena microcephala (Rutaceae) in full flower, and
nearby was a grove of Banksia ashbyi (Proteaceae) trees 5-10 m tall with

186

some flowers still open. These three species all had flowers of suitable
sizes and structures for pollination by birds (Fig. 1). Accordingly, birds
were mist-netted so that their pollen loads could be compared with known
pollen from each of three plant species, and an attempt was made lo
record the frequency at which honcyeaters visited flowers of each plant
species.

Fig. 1.—Photographs illustrating size and structural relationships of
a hand-held Singing Honeyeater (left row) and a Spiny-chceked Honeyeater
(right row) with inflorescences of Grevillea rogersoniana (top), Diplolaena
microcephala (middle) and Banksia ashbyi (bottom). The positions of the
honeyeaters are comparable to natural feeding positions on Grevillea rog¬
ersoniana and Banksia ashbyi. When feeding on Diplolaena microcephala ,
honeyeaters approach the pendulous inflorescences from below rather than
sideways as shown in the photographs (I. G. Crook, pers. comm.).

187

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Birds were mist-netted in the G. rogersonianci thicket over the period
0610 to 0800 hours on September 17, 1979. On capture, the head of each
honeyeatcr was held over a glass microscope slide coated in a thin Veneer
of vaseline petroleum jelly and a small brush was used to remove pollen
from the bill and facial feathers. The brush was flicked clean and washed
in fast-drying alcohol after each bird was sampled. Reference collections
of pollen of the three likely bird-pollinated plants were also placed on
vaselined slides. The shape of pollen grains of each species was noted on
microscopic examination of reference slides and maximum length of 10
pollen grains/species determined with a micrometer eyepiece. Three 60
x 0.6 mm transects were then examined on each slide of pollen sampled
from honeyeaters and the number of grains of each plant species was
recorded.

Opportunistic records of the number of feeding bouts of honeyeaters
on each species were made during a total of ca. 60 minutes observation in
the G. rogersonianci thicket during the early morning peak of feeding
activity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Examination of reference collections of pollen showed that the grains
of Grevillea rogersoniana, Banksia ashbyi and Diplolaena microcephala
were distinguishable by their shape and/or maximum length (Table 1).

TABLE 1.—SHAPE AND MAXIMUM LENGTH OF POLLEN OF THE THREE
BIRD-POLLINATED SPECIES IN THE GREVILLEA ROGERSONIANA THICKET

D lant Species

Pollen Shape

mean^SE

Maximum length (^m)
range

Grevillea rogersoniana

triangular

69.2^0.8

64.4-72.0

Diplolaena microcephala

ellipsoidal

50.0^0.4

48.0-52.4

Banksia ashbyi

ellipsoidal

62.0^1.2

55.6-67.6

Three Singing Honeyeaters and one Spiny-cheeked Honeyeatcr were
captured. All four birds carried pollen of the three plant species, but grains
of Diplolaena microcephala predominated, constituting 91% of the total
of 731 examined on all four birds (Table 2). By comparison, pollen of
Grevillea rogersoniana and Banksia ashbyi each constituted only 3% of
the total number of grains. A much smaller amount of pollen was collected
from the Spiny-checked Honeyeatcr than from the Singing Honeyeaters.

Observed foraging rates differed considerably from the relative pro¬
portions of pollen of the plant species in the pollen loads. In ca. 60 minutes
opportunistic observation, Singing Honeyeaters were seen leeding at Grevil¬
lea rogersoniana inflorescences 7 times. They were not observed feeding on
Diplolaena microcephala or Banksia ashbyi. Over the same period. Spiny-
cheeked Honeyeaters were seen feeding once on Grevillea rogersoniana,
twice on Banksia ashbyi and not at all on Diplolaena microcephala.

TABLE 2.—COMPOSITION OF POLLEN LOADS ON FOUR HONEYEATERS CAPTURED IN
THE GREVILLEA ROGERSONIANA THICKET

Honeyeater

Number

of pollen

grains*

Grevillea Diplolaena

rogersoniana microcephala

Banksia

ashbyi

Unknown

Total

Singing

282

293

Singing

286

316

Singing

113

Spiny-cheeked

1 ,

‘Number counted on three 60 x 0.6 mm microscopic transects along each vaselined glass

slide.

188

The failure to observe honeyeaters foraging on D. microcephala is
interesting in view of the predominance of grains of this species in the
pollen loads of captured birds. This discrepancy may merely reflect defic¬
iencies in the observational data. Alternatively, if these data reflect the
real situation, it is possible that honeyeaters fed more frequently on D.
microcephala and picked up substantial amounts of its pollen at some
time of the day other than in the early morning. However, even if this
did not occur, the compact arrangement of relatively large anthers in
Diplolaena inflorescences (Fig. 1) would conceivably transfer much more
pollen to a honeyeatcr probing for nectar on an occasional visit than would
the more open array of small pollen-presenters found on Grevillea roper -
soniana and Banksia ashbyi inflorescences. Indeed, it may be that the floral
morphology and pollen production of Diplolaena microcephala were fav¬
oured by natural selection as devices to compensate for low visitation rates
by honeyeaters in the face of competition from copious nectar-producing
plants such as Grevillea rogersottiana. A critical examination of this and
similar hypotheses would contribute towards further understanding of the
divergent ways in which these plants exploit the service of their common
pollinators.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 am grateful to P. J. Fuller, K. E. Cashin and J. K. Rolfe for assistance
in the field, to Dr. I. G. Crook for critical comments on the manuscript,
and to the Western Australian Department of Fisheries and Wildlife for
funding the project.

REFERENCES

BURBIDGE, A. H., S. D. HOPPER and D. J. COATES, 1979. Pollen
loads on New Holland Honeyeaters at Qualup, Western Australia.
West. Aust. Nat., 14: 126-28.

HOPPER, S. D., 1980. Bird and mammal pollen vectors in Banksia com¬
munities at Cheyne Beach, Western Australia. A ust. J. Bot., 28, in
press.

PATON, D. C. and H. A. FORD, 1977. Pollination by birds of native
plants in South Australia. Emu, 77: 73-85.

THE AVIFAUNA OF GARDEN ISLAND, COCKBURN SOUND

By IAN ABBOTT, Zoology Department, University of Western Australia,

Nedlands*

Although this relatively large island, of area 1,100 ha, is close to the
mainland, it paradoxically has been less thoroughly studied by ornitholo¬
gists than Rottnest Island. In 1978 the naval facility HMAS Stirling was
commissioned and subsequently there was much public discussion on the
question of public access to this Commonwealth-owned island. It is there¬
fore timely to publish an up-to-date list of bird species, comprising those
recorded by earlier workers over twenty years ago as well as species
recorded by me since 1974.

Those who have published their records are Alexander (1921), Ser-
venty (1938), Sedgwick (1940), Buller (1949) and Calderwood (1953).
Calderwood’s list was based on a visit of one day and Sedgwick’s list was
the result of two visits. Serventy made six visits, each of a few hours’
duration whereas Buller’s list resulted from a five day visit. It is likely
that these visitors concentrated on the southern parts of the island. All
of my visits were made after a causeway was constructed to the island,
so I have had the advantage of motor transport in covering much of the
island. As well, most of the island was traversed on foot. The dates of my
visits are: 26 June 1974, 13-15 (inclusive) September 1974, 7-15 February
1975, 18 August 1975, 12 December 1975 and 11 August 1978. In my
February visit I mist-netted and banded birds in an Acacia rostellifera/
Melaleuca lanceolata low closed-forest near the Zoology Research Station.

(•Present address: Institute of Forest Research and Protection, Hayman Road, Como)

189

In the following annotated list I mention all published records.
Common names and the order of species follow Serventy and Whittell
(1976).

Pied Cormorant. Sedgwick.

Little Pied Cormorant. Sedgwick.

Reef Heron. Sedgwick.

Mountain Duck. On 18 August 1975 I flushed a bird from a Rink
hole in aeolianite, probably a nesting site, on the west coast. One pair
with several ducklings was seen on an artificial pond in September 1978
(R. Cranfield, pers. comm.).

Osprey. One nest known (Abbott, 1977).

Kestrel. I have never seen more than one pair on the island. Also
recorded by Alexander, Serventy (as a permanent resident), Sedgwick and
Calderwood.

Pied Oystercatcher. Recorded by Sedgwick and me.

Banded Plover. Buller.

Grey Plover. Sedgwick.

Red-capped Dotterel. Sedgwick.

Red-necked Stint. Sedgwick.

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. Sedgwick.

Southern Skua. One flew over the northern end on 18 August 1975.

Silver Gull. Recorded by Sedgwick and me.

Crested Tern. Recorded by Sedgwick and me.

Caspian Tern. Single birds on three of my visits.

Fairy Tern. Sedgwick recorded young birds at Careening Bay. I have
been told by occupants of huts on the northern part of the island of
large numbers of what must have been this species breeding on beaches
on the eastern coast.

Domestic Pigeon. Recorded as ‘fairly numerous’ by Calderwood.

Spotted Turtle-dove. Self-introduced resident. Rarer than the next
species. Recorded also by Serventy (as occasional visitor, possibly estab¬
lished), Sedgwick, Buller (in appreciable numbers) and Calderwood.

Senegal Turtle-dove. Self-introduced resident. Common and wide¬
spread. Previously recorded by Alexander (as straggler), Serventy (occa¬
sional visitor), Sedgwick, Buller (in appreciable numbers) and Calderwood.

Brush Bronzewing. Resident. Common on my first visit, but less so
thereafter; only two were seen on my last visit. This species feeds on the
fruits of Solarium symonii, a very common plant species in disturbed areas
on the island. Previously recorded only by Alexander. Perhaps this species
undergoes a cycle in its population size.

Rock Parrot. Vagrant. I saw one bird on 15 September 1974 in Acacia
rostellifera low closed-forest.

Pallid Cuckoo. Vagrant. Single birds recorded 26 June 1974 and 8
February 1975 (this last banded).

Golden Bronze Cuckoo. Vagrant. One bird recorded by Buller.

Laughing Kookaburra. Only record is that of Serventy (as occasional
visitor).

Sacred Kingfisher. Status uncertain, but probably a regular non¬
breeding visitor. Recorded by Sedgwick and Calderwood and on 8 February
1975 (one banded) and 11 August 1978.

Welcome Swallow'. Common resident. Also recorded by Serventy (as
permanent resident), Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood.

Tree-Martin. Vagrant. Serventy and Calderwood.

190

Australian Pipit. Probably a rare resident. I have recorded it twice.
Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood also record it.

Western Warbler. Common resident. Categorized as a visitor by
Servcnty, and also recorded by Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood.

Grey Fantail. Common resident. Recorded previously by Sedgwick,
Buller and Calderwood.

Willy Wagtail. Common resident. Recorded earlier by Alexander,
Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood. This species shows evidence of niche
shift on the island (Abbott, 1976).

Golden Whistler. Common resident. Serventy records hearing a whistler
which was probably this species; Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood record
the species.

Western Silvereye. Very common resident, the numbers of which are
no doubt augmented at various times of the year by mainland birds.
Recorded also by Alexander, Serventy (as permanent resident), Sedgwick,
Buller and Calderwood. The last two class it as the commonest bird on
the island.

Singing Honeycater. Common resident. Earlier recorded by Serventy
(as a visitor), Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood.

White-fronted Chat. The only record is by Alexander.

Grey Butcher-bird. Common resident. Previous records were made
by Serventy (as occasional visitor), Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood.

Western Magpie. Occasional visitor. I have recorded magpies on three
occasions, the largest number present being eight. Classed by Serventy as
a visitor, and also recorded by Sedgwick, Buller and Calderwood.

Australian Raven. Common resident, doubtless commoner than pre¬
viously as there is now a large rubbish dump on the island. Earlier recorded
by Serventy (permanent resident), Sedgwick and Buller.

In summary, forty bird species have been recorded on Garden Island
to date, much less than the number recorded on Rottnest (Storr, 1964).
This surely reflects ornithological interest in the two islands. I expect that
future visitors will add to the list of waders; I have devoted little of my
time to them. Of the 40 species recorded, one seabird, one duck, the Osprey
and fourteen species of landlords breed on Garden island. The paucity of
breeding seabirds is in marked contrast to neighbouring islands (Abbott,
1977).

BIRD SPECIES OF PARTICULAR INTEREST

In my opinion the Brush Bronzewing is endangered. Although man
has benefited this species to a certain extent by clearing limited areas of
the island and thereby allowing one of its favoured food plants Solatium
symonii to proliferate, he has also linked the island to the mainland by a
causeway. This has allowed feral cats to gain access to the island. I am
therefore not sanguine about the survival of this population, of especial
interest now that the species is long extinct on Rottnest (Storr, 1964) and
the coastal plain near Perth (Serventy and Whittell, 1976).

The Willy Wagail on Garden Island lives in a habitat quite unlike
its preferred habitat on the mainland. It is also the only insular population
in South-western Australia, even though the species is often recorded as
a vagrant on many other such islands. The Golden Whistler, which is
endangered on Rottnest through clearing of its habitat, survives in good
numbers on Garden Island. This species long ago disappeared from the
coastal plain near Perth (Serventy and Whittell, 1976). The remaining
species of interest is the Grey Butcher-bird. Only one other island in
South-western Australia has a population of this species. On the adjacent
mainland, such as at Woodman Point and Swanbourne Rifle Range, this
species seems to require high perches to make the wattle scrub suitable
habitat. Tuarts usually satisfy this requirement. Grey Butcher-birds are

191

therefore another species that live in a slightly different habitat from that
preferred on the adjacent mainland.

COMPARISONS WITH LANDBIRD FAUNA OF ROTTNEST ISLAND

Some puzzling results follow from a comparison of the landbird faunas
of Garden Island and Rottnest Island. Three species, Grey Fantail, Willy
Wagtail and Grey Butcher-bird, are found only on Garden Island, although
the first two have been recorded on Rottnest as occasional visitors or
as vagrants (Storr, 1964). Nearly twice as many species are (or were)
found on Rottnest alone: Rock Parrot, Rufous Whistler (extinct). Red-
capped Robin, Spotted Scrub-Wren and White-fronted Chat. Ten species
are held in common, namely Kestrel, Senegal Turtle-dove, Indian Turtle¬
dove, Welcome Swallow, Golden Whistler, Western Warbler (colonized
Rottnest about 1950), Singing Honcyeater, Western Silvereye, Australian
Pipit and Australian Raven. At first it is easy to see why the Chat is absent
from Garden Island, because Rottnest has extensive salt lakes surrounded
by samphire. However, Chats also occur toward the western part of the
island. For this reason, parts of Garden Island should be suitable for them.
I can see no obvious ecological reason why the three species only on
Garden Island should not occur on Rottnest Island, or why the five found
only on Rottnest should not be on Garden. It is too facile to attribute
these disjunctions to interspecific competition. Nevertheless, these dis¬
tribution patterns are no less interesting than the well known vicarious
distributions of Tammar and Quokka, and of Tiger Snake and Dugite, on
Garden and Rottnest Islands.

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF LANDBIRD SPECIES ON ROTTNEST
AND GARDEN ISLANDS

Mist nets were operated on Rottnest Island for 1-8 December 1974
and on Garden Island for 7-14 February 1975. The habitat studied on
Rottnest consisted of Acacia rostellifera low closed-forest interspersed with
low heath, whereas that on Garden Island was taller Acacia rostellifera
low closed-forest mixed with some Melaleuca lanceolata. The following
table shows the number of individuals of the species netted in these
habitats.

Rottnest 1

Garden 1.

Pallid Cuckoo

Sacred Kingfisher

Welcome Swallow

Grey Fantail

Willy Wagtail

Golden Whistler

Singing Honeyeater

Western Silvereye

TOTAL ABUNDANCE

TOTAL NO. SPECIES NETTED

TOTAL NO. NET-HOURS

383

297

On Garden Island more species were netted but these belonged to
fewer individuals than on Rottnest. These differences have been shown in
a wider study of South-western Australian islands to correlate well with
differences in vegetation structure between the habitats sampled (Abbott,
1978).

REFERENCES

ABBOTT, I. 1976. Is the avifauna of Kangaroo Island impoverished because
of unsuitable habitat? Emu, 76: 43-44.

ABBOTT, I. 1977. Observations on the distribution of bird species on
small islands near Perth. \V. Aust. Nat., 13: 196-198.

ABBOTT, I. 1978. Factors determining the number of land bird species
on islands around South-western Australia. Oecologia, 33: 221-233.

192

ALEXANDER, W. B. 1921. The birds of the Swan River district, Western
Australia. Emu, 20: 149-168.

BULLER, K. 1949. Land-birds of Garden Island. W. A list. Nat., 2: 48.

CALDERWOOD, D. N. 1953. Land-birds of Garden Island. W. A list.
Nat., 4: 20.

SEDGWICK, E. 1940. Birds of the Rockingham district. Emu, 40: 129-
151, 237-245.

SERVENTY, D. L. 1938. Birds of the islands off Fremantle, Western
Australia. Emu, 37: 265-268.

SERVENTY, D. L. and H. M. WHITTELL. 1976. Birds of Western Aus¬
tralia. Univ. W.A. Press, Perth.

STORR, G. M. 1964. The avifauna of Rottnest Island. Emu, 64: 48-60,
105-113, 172-180.

BLUE-GREEN ALGAE IN NECTAR OF BANKS1A
aff. SPHAEROCARPA

By BYRON LAMONT, Department of Biology,

Western Australian Institute of Technology, Bentley, 6102.

Inspection of numerous plants of the Banksia aff. sphaerocarpa R. Br.
complex has shown that the nectar at the base of the flowers is invariably
olive green (Fig. 1). This change from the original transparent, lemon
colour occurs within one or two days of the flowers opening. As the

Fig. 1.—Flower head of Banksia aff. sphaerocarpa beginning to open.
Already nectar at the base of the open flowers has turned dark green
due to the presence of blue-green algae (arrow). Scale = 4 cm.

193

flowers age, the nectar becomes an almost black, gelatinous lump adhering
to the base of the flowers. This phenomenon was observed in plants
inspected at Armadale, Maddington, Kings Park (cultivated in the Botanic
Garden), and in the vicinity of Geraldton and Walkaway.

Green nectar was most abundant on flower heads opening during
fine weather following autumn showers a few days before (May-June).
The dark mucilage usually formed a skin over the drop of nectar which
remained liquid inside. With greater output, green nectar would flow over
the flowers, down the leaves and stems and onto the ground. Nectar
production fell during prolonged dry weather, and continual rain in later
months washed off the nectar soon after exudation, so that in both cases
little mucilage accumulated.

High power microscopic examination of the green, mucilaginous nectar
revealed abundant filamentous and unicellular blue-green algae embedded
in green mucilage. Pollen grains of Banksia aff. sphaerocarpa were always
present. None had germinated, while bacteria often adhered to them.

Yeasts were sometimes observed, and these no doubt contributed to
the ‘musty’ smell of the flowers. Some of the densely-packed, branching
filaments lacked thick-walled hcterocysts (Nostochopsis?), while in others
about 10% of the cells were heterocystous. Large, spore-like akinetes were
abundant in old nectar. These were penultimate to a terminal heterocyst
(Cylitidrospermum, Wollea?, both common in soil) or less frequently,
between two heterocysts (Nostoc , Anabaenci?, both common in soil). Larger,
multicellular hormogonia were sometimes seen.

Are these blue-green algae incidental in the nectar, or do they have
some functional significance? The skin of mucilage would certainly reduce
evaporation and hence prolong the attractiveness of the flowers via nectar
and odour. Nevertheless, at least the Cannington form of this species
complex is completely self-fertile, even in the absence of pollinators
(Lamont, unpub.). These algae may even produce sufficient toxins (well-
known in aquatic species) to deter animal visitors. On the other hand,
the abundance of heterocysts indicates considerable potential for fixation
of atmospheric nitrogen and its conversion into ammonia and thence
amino acids. In this case, the nectar may be a valuable protein supplement,
as well as energy source, for pollinators. In view of this species’ highly
infertile sandy (dry or winter-waterlogged) habitats, this unusual symbiosis
may well have a more direct function: a source of supplementary nitrogen
for the plant. Nitrogen compounds would be washed or carried soon after
synthesis onto the mat of proteoid roots under the canopy. Even blue-green
algae which will only fix nitrogen in the presence of fructose, a standard
component of nectar, would be accommodated by this system. Further
studies are continuing.

Thanks are due to Rob Jamieson of Wonthella for his worthy speci¬
mens and field notes, and Alex George for his comments on the manuscript.

LONG RANGE SIGHTINGS OF BUSH FIRES AS A POSSIBLE
INCENTIVE FOR PLEISTOCENE VOYAGES TO
GREATER AUSTRALIA

By C. E. DORTCH and B. G. MUIR, Western Australian Museum,
Perth, Western Australia.

Birdsell (1977) compares alternative Indonesian island routes (Figure
1, inset) possibly used by Pleistocene voyagers to Greater Australia
and estimates the shortest seaway distances existing during glacial maxima
at c. 20,000 and c. 53,000 yr BP. periods when the sea around northern
Australia is estimated by Chappell (1976) to have been as much as 150 m
below present sea level. Then and during the more frequent episodes over
the past 120,000 years when sea level was 20-80 m below that of the
present (cf. Chappell, 1976, Figure 1) smoke and glare of naturally caused
bush fires on the exposed Sahul Shelf should have been visible from several

194

routes possibly used by Pleistocene voyagers to Australia.

195

Indonesian islands, and could have provided incentive for voyages to
Greater Australia.

Little information is available for the climate of the Sahul Shelf at
53,000 yr BP or at previous glacial maxima. However it seems reasonable
to suggest that these climates were similar to the better known regional
climate of the last glacial maximum. At that time northward displacement
of tropical cyclones and westerlies, cooler sea temperatures, and the
presence of larger land masses could have provided generally cooler and
drier conditions than at present (Bowler et al.. 1976; CLWAAP 1976; Fair-
bridge, 1965; van Andel et al., 1967; Webster & Stretten, 1978). Vegetation
on the Sahul Shelf at c. 18,000 yr BP is considered to have been semi-
arid savanna, open woodland and woodland (Mayr, 1944; Nix & Raima,
1972; van Andel et al., 1967; Webster & Stretten, 1972). Such formations
existing during glacial maxima are likely to have been prone to fire as
semi-arid Australian vegetation is at present.

Fires caused by lightning are well documented for all parts of Aus¬
tralia (Anon., 1967; Jones, 1968; King, 1963; Navch, 1975; Prciss, 1968;
Royal Commission Report 1961; Personal communication: F. Edmunson,
Chairman, State Lightning Committee, State Energy Commission, Western
Australia). The present frequency of thunder days (a measure of proba¬
bility of lightning strikes) in northern Australian sclerophyll woodland
areas is about 30-50 days per annum (Anon., 1967), a frequency possibly
higher than that of the cooler, perhaps less turbulent regional conditions
during glacial periods. Even so it is probable that lightning caused fires
in northern Australia throughout the late Quaternary, and that the vege¬
tation postulated for the Sahul Shelf is likely periodically to have been
sufficient to support fires of the intensity recorded in modern Australian
sclerophyll formations (Baxter et cil., 1967; Cochrane, 1966; Vines, 1970).

A mariners’ distance calculation (Lecky, 1956):

Vobserver’s height in feet -FVobjcct height in feet ^distance observable
above sea level above sea level in nautical miles

can be used to show' that 1,000 m high smoke plumes produced by relatively
small bush fires should have been visible by an observer standing at sea
level for distances up to 110 km, well in excess of the minimum 87 km
(route 2B, Fig. 1) separating Timor/Roti from the Sahul Shelf when sea
levels were lowest, and of the maximum 103 km estimated by Birdsell
(1976) for the longest crossing (the last stage of route 1C, Nuhu Tjut to
Sahul Shelf at Aru Islands, Figure 1) of any of his routes at 150 m
below present sea level.

Increases in the heights above sea level of the observer and the object
can greatly extend distances over which objects can be seen, so making
possible bush fire observations when seaways between Indonesia and
Greater Australia were much wider than at glacial maxima. Large bush
fires under conditions of little or no wind may create convectional mael¬
stroms which commonly reach altitudes of 5,000 m (Taylor et al. 1971),
and have been recorded as high as 6,100 m (Vines 1975). It is possible
then that under optimum sighting conditions smoke plumes reaching
heights of 5,000 m or more could be seen by an observer standing 150 m
above sea level from as far away as 275 km. This distance far exceeds
the widths of the seaways between Indonesian islands adjacent to the
Sahul Shelf on routes 1A-C and 2A when sea level was — 50 m, and
approximates the seaway between Timor/Roti and the partly submerged
Sahul Shelf when the sea was 50-200 m below its present level (Fig. 1).

First hand observations collected by the authors support the argument
that smoke and also glare of Australian bush fires can be seen over
long distances. In one case a Western Australian Museum field party
camped at Gregory Salt Lake (Lat. 20°10’S. Long. 127°30’E.) in a semi-
arid part of north-w'estern Australia saw the glare of a large bush fire
burning in grassland and sparse open woodland 35 km NE of Sturt Creek
homestead, a distance of some 160 km (personal communication: R. John-

196

stone and L. Smith, Western Australian Museum). It is concluded that
during the Pleistocene and early Holocene human beings on several Indo¬
nesian islands (i.c. Timor/Roti, Tanimbar, Nuhu Tjut, Seram and Gebe,
and possibly Sermata, Babar, Obi and Halmahera, Fig. 1) occasionally
should have been able to see smoke or glare of naturally caused bush
fires on the large land masses of the exposed Sahul Shelf. Such obser¬
vations, perhaps in the case of the route 1 variants combined with sightings
of elevated land features (Birdsell, 1977; Jennings, 1971), may have
resulted in periodic, deliberate voyages to Greater Australia. This possi¬
bility is relevant to the problem of diversity recently noted among pre¬
historic Australian human remains (Thorne, 1977), and to the interpre¬
tation of cultural developments in Australia and New Guinea.

We thank G. W. Kendrick for reading the Ms.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS. 1967. Mean annual thunder day map of Australia Bureau
of Meteorology, Melbourne.

BAXTER, J. R., D. R. PACKHAM, and G. B. PEET. 1967. Control
burning from aircraft. Report, C.S.I.R.O., Chemical Research Labora¬
tories, Melbourne.

BIRDSELL, J. 1977. The recalibration of a paradigm for the first peopling
of Greater Australia. In Sunda and Sahul. J. Allen, J. Golson and R.
Jones (Eds), Academic Press, London.

BOWLER, J. M., G. S. HOPE, J. N. JENNINGS, G. SINGH, and D.
WALKER. 1976. Late Quaternary climates of Australia and New
Guinea. Quaternary Research, 6: 359-394.

CHAPPELL, J. 1976. Aspects of late Quaternary palaeogeography of the
Australian-East Indonesian region. In The Origin of The Australians.
R. L. Kirk and A. G. Thorne (Eds), Australian Institute of Aboriginal
Studies, Canberra.

CLIMAP Project Members. 1976. The surface of the ice-age earth. Science,
191: 1131-1137.

COCHRANE, G. R. 1966. Bushfires and vegetation regeneration. Victorian
Naturalist, 83: 4-10.

FAIRBRIDGE, R. W. 1965. African Ice-Age aridity. In Problems in
palaeo-climatology. Nairn, A. E. (Ed), John Wiley, New York.
JENNINGS, J. N. 1971. Sea level changes and land links. In Aboriginal
man and environment in Australia. D. J. Mulvancy and J. Golson,
(Eds), Australian National University, Canberra.

JONES, R. 1968. The geographical background to the arrival of man in
Australia and Tasmania. Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in
Oceania, 3: 186-215.

KING, A. R. 1963. Report on the influence of colonisation on the forests
and the prevalence of bush fires in Australia. C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne.
LECKY, S. T. S. 1956. Wrinkles in practical navigation. Phillip, London.
MAYR, E. 1944. Timor and the colonization of Australia by birds. Emu,
44: 113-130.

NAVEH, Z. 1975. The evolutionary significance of fire in the Mediter¬
ranean region. Vegetatio, 29: 199-208.

NEWSOME, A. E., J. McILROY and P. CATLING. 1967. The effects of
an extensive wildfire on populations of twenty ground vertebrates in
south-east Australia. In Managing terrestrial ecosystems. J. Kikkawa
and H. A. Nix (Eds), Symposium. Proceedings of the Ecological
Society of Australia, 9: 107-123.

NIX, J. S. and J. D. KALMA. 1972. Climate as a dominant control in
the biogeography of northern Australia and New Guinea. In Bridge
and barrier: the natural and cultural history of Torres Strait. D.
Walker (Ed), Australian National University, Canberra.

PREISS, K. A. and P. M. THOMAS (Eds). 1968. Hincks National Park.

South Australian Naturalist, 45: 29-78.

Report on the Royal Commission appointed to enquire into and report
upon the bush fires of December, I960 and January, February and
March, 1961 in Western Australia. 1961. Government Printer, Perth.

197

TAYLOR, R. B., D. G. CORKE, N. K. KING, D. A. MacARTHUR,
D. R. PACKHAM and R. G. VINES. 1971. Some meteorological
aspects of three intense forest fires. Technical Paper 21, C.S.I.R.O.
Division of Meteorological Physics, Melbourne.

THORNE, A. G. 1977. Separation or reconciliation? Biological clues to
the development of Australian Society. In Sunda and Sahul. J. Allen,
J. Golson and R. Jones (Eds), Academic Press, London.

Van ANDEL, T. H., G. R. HEATH, T. C. MOORE and D. F. R.
McGEARY. 1967. Late Quaternary History, Climate and Ocean¬
ography of the Timor Sea, north-western Australia. American Journal
of Science, 265: 737-758.

VINES, R. G. 1970. A Survey of Forest Fire danger in Victoria. Australian
Forest Research, 4: 39-44.

VINES, R. G. 1975. Bushfire research in C.S.I.R.O. Search, 6: 73-78.

WEBSTER, P. S. and N. A. STRETTEN. 1972. Aspects of late Quaternary
climate in tropical Australasia. In Bridge and barrier: the natural and
cultural history of Torres Strait. D. Walker (Ed.), Australian National
University, Canberra.

WEBSTER, P. S. and N. A. STRETTEN, 1978. Late Quaternary ice age
climates of tropical Australia: interpretation and reconstruction.
Quaternary Research, 10: 279-309.

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

An adult food plant of Ethon breve (Coleoptera: Buprestidae).—On
September 23, 1979 while walking in bushland in an adjacent allotment
opposite the W.A. Dept, of Agriculture, South Perth, I found, on one
flower of Patersonia occidentalis R.Br., an individual of the jewel beetle
Ethon breve Carter, feeding on a petal, but the insect eluded capture.
110 flowers of numerous P. occidentals plants were closely examined
during 1120 to 1420 hours, but only four beetles were observed on the
flowers, all of which were collected. 46 flowers (42% of those examined)
had feeding damage to the petals. The sexual parts (i.e. style and stamens)
of 5 flowers had been eaten. Since numbers of E. breve appeared low at
the time, it is doubtful whether all feeding damage was attributable to
this beetle. 1 also found a grasshopper (Tettigoniidae) chewing a petal
of a flower. It is possible that grasshoppers are the main insects responsible
for the feeding damage observed. Ethon is a small genus of beetles re¬
stricted to Australia. Carter (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 48, 1923: 159-176)
noted adults of Ethon species from around Sydney fed on Dillwynia and
Pultenaea (Fabaceae). It is thus interesting to note E . breve feeding on
a species of the Iridaceae (a monocotyledonous family).

—T. J. HAWKESWOOD, Department of Botany,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

Further Notes on Mistletoes from the Murchison Area, W.A.—The
undetermined mistletoe mentioned in my previous article (West. Aust.
Nat., 14, 1979: 160-161) has been identified by Mr. A. S. George (W.A.
Herbarium) as Amyema sanguineum (F. Muell.) Dans. Barlow, (Aust. J.
Bot., 14, 1966: 421-499) states that this is a widespread species in northern
Australia “from North West Cane to north-east Queensland in open forests
and is predominantly parasitic on Eucalyptus spp., rarely on Melaleuca
spp. and a few other hosts.” The following Western Australian eucalypts
have been recorded as hosts for A. sanguineum (based on collections in
the W.A. Herbarium, Perth)— Eucalyptus argillacea, E. camaldulensis, E.
terminalis and E. tetradonta. My collection from E. microtheca adds a
further host record.

On April 14, 1979, Amyema gibberulum (Tate) Dans, was collected

198

from Grevillea stenobotrya at Mt. Narryer (26°35’S, 115°55’E). Barlow
(loc. cit.) states that this species is almost exclusively parasitic on species
of Grevillea and Hakea. The type specimen was collected on Grevillea
nematophylla in South Australia. The following Western Australian plants
have been recorded as hosts (based on collections in the W.A. Herbarium,
Perth)— Acacia acuminata, A. aneura , Grevillea nematophylla, G. pyra-
midalis, G. striata, G . wickhamii, Hakea lorea and //. recurva. My collec¬
tion from G. stenobotrya adds another host record.

—T. J. HAWKESWOOD, Department of Botany,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

Cattle Egrets oil Herdsman Lake.—Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) are
not common in southern Western Australia. So 1 feel it is worth recording
a sighting of the species at Herdsman Lake on August 28, 1978. When
driving along Pearson Street 1 saw a bulky-looking white egret. It was much
smaller than the White Egret (Egretta alba) but bulkier, though possibly
shorter, than a Whitefaced Heron (Ardea novaehollandiae). The plumage
was pure white except that the face and the plumes (stretching down the
back) were of bright buff. The bill was yellow with a noticeable oink flush
at the base.

1 was unable to return until October 6, when, after a long search, 1
saw eight egrets feeding in rough grass around some horses. Two of the
egrets had plumes and buff colouring to the head; the others were all
white with yellow bills, but had no plumes. The legs were not black,
nor pale. These birds were not seen again but as two of them were in
nearly full breeding plumage (similar to those I have seen in Europe)
there is a possibility they may have remained around cattle elsewhere in
the South-West of the State. In the vicinity, on October 6, were some
White Ibis (Threskiornis molucca) and Straw-necked Ibis (T. spinicollis).

—T. G. D. SHANNON, Duncraig.

Additional Record of the White-backed Swallow South of the Swan
River.—N. Kolichis (West Aust. Nat., 14, 1979: 131) has summarized
records of the White-backed Swallow (Cheramoeca leucosternum) on the
Swan Coastal Plain. Only the most southerly of these was south of the
Swan River, at Lecming. Since then, P. Curry (West, Aust. Nat., 14: 1979,
157) has reported a single bird at Lake Jandakot.

This report concerns another sighting south of the Swan River, several
kilometres south of Lecming, at Thompson Lake (Western Australian Wild¬
life Authority Reserve No. 15556). On March 3, 1979, in company with
P. A. Clay, E. C. Edwards and R. Rudcforth, 1 saw 45-f White-backed
Swallows at this locality. They were feeding over the mud flats in associa¬
tion with hundreds of Welcome Swallows (Hirundo neoxena) and a few
Tree-Martins (Petrochelidon nigricans) perched on some dead, leafless
shrubs in the mudflats. At these times, the birds were counted by all four
observers.

A few White-backed Swallows were still present on March 11, by
which time the lake was almost completely dry. None was seen on March
31, nor on most visits since then, with the exception of a single bird on
July 22, and another on September 15, 1979.

Apparently suitable habitat for the White-backed Swallow can be
found still further south on the coastal plain—it will be of interest to see
if this swallow continues to extend its range in this direction, or whether
the current influx is due to conditions being temporarily favourable for
this species.

—ALLAN BURBIDGE, Botany Department,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

199

White-backed Swallow in the South-West.—Serventy & Whittell
(Birds of Western Australia, 1976: 322) comment on the southward expan¬
sion of the range of the White-backed Swallow (Chaeramocca leucosterna);
their southernmost locality is between Bannister and Williams. On the Swan
Coastal Plain, N. Kolichis (West. Aust. Nat., 14, 1979: 131) and P. Curry
(West. Aust. Nat., 14, 1979: 157) record it south of the Swan River. On
9 November 1979 I observed 5 birds flying over a paddock 11 km west-
southwest of Denmark, indicating that this species occasionally wanders
to the south coast.

The distribution of this SDecies in the South-West would accord with
the map in Figs. 8 and 9, pp. 58-59 in Serventy & Whittell, cited above.
This Swallow is outflanking the dense forest belt indicated by these
authors. The birds which are invading along the northern corridor have
reached the Swan River district and those along the southern corridor
are now prospecting as far south as Denmark.

—JOHN DELL, Western Australian Museum, Perth.

The first record of the Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis from
Australia.—At about 1000 hrs on November 7, 1979 1 found a freshly
dead Phylloscopus on Sandv Island, an unvegctated exposed sandbank on
Scott Reef, W.A. (14°03’S, 121°46’E). Rigor mortis was only starting to
set in so probably the bird had died overnight or early in the morning.
The bird was found lying underneath the platform of a large automatic
weather station. A check of the body tissue and skeletal elements, made
while preparing the specimen as a study skin, did not indicate that it had
suffered injury or death from impact. Its gizzard was empty except for
some grit. Though light in weight, the bird did not appear very emaciated
and small quantities of subcutaneous fat were present.

The bird, a subadult on skull ossification, could not be accurately
sexed. It was not in moult. The specimen has been lodged with the
Western Australian Museum (rcg. no. A16285). I suspected it was Phyl¬
loscopus borealis and a check of King and Dickinson (1975) showed that
this was so on the basis of plumage, measurements, the presence of a
non-emarginated 5th primary, the comparative shortness of the 10th pri¬
mary, the wing formula whereby the 9th primary fell between the 5th
and 4th primaries, and the presence of a wing bar. A further check using
the key In Williamson (1962) also confirmed the specific identification as
P. borealis . The specimen is referable to the nominate form on the basis
of breast coloration and bill length.

P. b. borealis breeds from arctic Norway and Finland east across
northern Russia to the Bering Sea. It occurs on passage through most of
eastern China, Japan and northern Indo-Chinese countries to winter
quarters through much of S.E. Asia including Indonesia east to the Mol¬
uccas. Other subspecies breed in Japan and Alaska. The species is a
regular vagrant to Western Europe so its apparent overshooting into
Australian territory is not surprising and in fact has been predicted (Mc¬
Kean et al., 1975). Its preference in wintering quarters for wooded areas
including mangroves (Medway and Wells, 1976) which in northern Aus¬
tralia harbour superficially similar Gergone species together with the
scarcity of competent bird watchers in the region would lessen the chance
of the species being detected if it occurs regularly in small numbers.

REFERENCES

KING, Ben F. and Edward F. DICKINSON. 1975. A Field Guide to the
Birds of South-East Asia 480 pp. Houghton Miftlin: Boston.
McKEAN, J. L., I. J. MASON and L. W. O'CONNOR. 1975. Birds not
previously recorded from Timor. Emu, 75: 62-64.

MEDWAY, Lord and David R. WELLS. 1976. The Birds of the Malay
Peninsula, vol. 5. 448 pp. Withcrby: London.

—JOHN L. McKEAN, Winnellie, N.T.

200

A Record of Orthetriun caledonicum feeding on another dragonfly.—
This record is based on observations made on 14 April 1979 at the Woor-
amel River, about 156 miles (250 km) ESE of Carnarvon, Western Aus¬
tralia (25°47’S, 115°58’E). About 1000 hrs (WST) a large blue dragonfly
Orthetriun caledonicum (Brauer), apparently common in the area, was
observed in flight grasping with its legs another dragonfly (Diplacodes
haematodes (Burmeister)). The blue dragonfly landed upon an Acacia bush,
settled for a few seconds, took flight again and landed on another Acacia
plant. After O. caledonicum severed the head of its prey, it proceeded to
feed on the softer material of the thorax. The crushing of mandibles
against the chitinous thorax of the prey was audible for about 1.5 metres
(5 ft). Shortly after, the individual of O. caledonicum ceased feeding and
took flight again with the remaining body of D. haematodes. During the
course of observations, the photograph below was able to be taken (Fig.
1). We find this record of interest since there appears to be little published
information on the prey of Australian dragonflies.

—M. PETERSON and T. J. HAWKESWOOD.

Fig. 1.— Orthetriun caledonicum feeding on another dragonfly (Dip¬
lacodes haematodes) at the Wooramel River, W.A. (Photograph by M.
Peterson).

201

An unusual occurrence of Eucalyptus leptophylla and Eucalyptus
sargentii at BcernuiIIali, north west of Gingin.—After reading the article,
A Record of the Slender-leaved White Mallee, Eucalyptus foecunda, in
Reabold Park, Perth, by I. Lantzke and P. McMillan, in the W.A. Natur¬
alist , 14 (3). 1 thought it may be of interest to record that in 1959, 1 sent
specimens of two different malices growing naturally on this farm to the
Department of Agriculture for identification. In a letter dated May 26,
1959, Mr. R. D. Royce identified them as Eucalyptus leptophylla and the
Salt River Gum, Eucalyptus sargentii. 1 raised seedlings in I960 and have
a fully grown specimen of each in the garden.

Eucalyptus leptophylla still grows on a small limestone ridge on the
roadside bordering the farm. Eucalyptus sargentii grows in a low, flat,
wet area of grey clay over shallow limestone. This farm is on the western
part of the Becrmullah plain c.24 km north west of Gingin and 26 km
from the coast. The closest Tuarts, Eucalyptus gomphocephala. grow 11
km to the west.

On the eastern side of the Becrmullah area are some Jam trees.
Acacia acuminata and York gums, Eucalyptus loxophleba. While near
Gingin on higher ground, a few specimens of the Weeping Pittosporum
Pittosporum phylliraeoides and Manna wattle, Acacia microhotrya, still
exist.

As these trees seem to be out of their usual range, it would appear
that these also are relics surviving from when the climate was different
from that at present.

—MRS. R. ROE, Box 4, Gingin, 6503
(present address: Lot 152 Bandy Avenue, Lancelin, 6508).

The Western Subspecies of the Cape Barren Goose Cereopsis novae-
hollandiae grisea (Vieillot)—On 22 October 1979 the writer and other
members of the Western Australian Wildlife Authority Bird Committee
visited the Agriculture Department’s Poultry Research Station at Wembley.
There, Messrs. R. H. Morris, A. V. Swain and A. B. Morrison showed us
three stocks of Cape Barren Geese, including adjoining pens of 7 birds
from Tasmania, 11 from South Australia and 9 from the Archipelago
of the Recherche. The Western Australian birds were readily distinguished
on coloration from eastern birds (in this respect Tasmanian and South
Australian birds were inseparable).

The white of the crown in the western birds extended down to the top
of the eye. In eastern birds it was narrower and more sharply delimited
from the grey of the side of head. In western birds the pink of the legs
was duller and less extensive, the greyish black of the feet extending up
the front edge of the “tarsus” to the “knee”. In eastern birds the leg
was bright reddish pink, and the greyish black of the front edge of the
“tarsus” extended only half way up to the “knee”.

The back and wings of eastern birds averaged greyer and less brown¬
ish than those of western birds. The eastern birds appeared also to be
slenderer. According to our hosts, the Western Australian birds were
heaviest, the South Australian lightest.

The two Western Australian males in the Western Australian Museum
(A 16241-2) have wing lengths of 476 and 445 mm respectively. According
to Mathews the holotype of C. n. georgi had a wing length of 491 mm.
Thus the range in w'ing length of three western males is almost exactly
the same as that given by Frith (Waterfowl in Australia. 1967, p. 127) for
14 adult males from Tasmania, viz. 450-490 mm.

The oldest name for the western subspecies is A user griseus Vieillot
(Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle. 1818, 23: 336), based on a
specimen in the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, collected by Labil-
lardiere. Vieillot said that Labillardiere’s specimen came from the “Terre
de Diemen”, but as Mathews suggested (Bds Aust. 4, 1914, 47), it must
have come from Western Australia. There is no evidence that Labillardiere

202

ever saw, let alone collect, a Cape Barren Goose in Tasmania. According
to Whittell (The Literature of Australian Birds, 1954, p. 37), Labillar-
diere collected a Cane Barren Goose on 12 December 1792 at Observatory
Island, Archipelago of the Recherche.

At first sight Cereopsis cinereus Vieillot (Nouveau Dictionnaire . . .
5, 1816: 516) might .seem to be an older name for the western suspecies.
However it is clearly based on Latham’s description of C. novaeltollandiae
(for a photocopy of which, I am grateful to Dr. D. L. Serventy). Two years
later when he described A user g rise us, Vieillot did not mention Cereopsis
cinereus; he was obviously unaware that the two names applied to the
same species.

A much later name for the western subspecies is Cereopsis novae-
hollandiae georgi Mathews (Novit. zool. , 18, 1912: 446), based on a single
specimen from North Twin Peak Island, Archipelago of the Recherche,
said to be darker and larger than eastern birds. Though Mathews’ figure
of the Cape Barren Goose (Bds A list., 4, pi. 204, opp. p. 44) is based on
the type of georgi, it does not depict the characters of the western sub¬
species: the leg coloration is more like that of eastern birds, and the
median white stripe on the crown and nape is omitted.

—G. M. STORR, Western Australian Museum.

Sea Lions Breeding on North Fisherman Island, Western Australia.—

Australian sea lions Neophoca cinerea currently range from the south-east
of South Australia to Shark Bay, Western Australia. However, colonies
occur only between Houtman Abrolhos, near Geraldton, W.A., and the
Pages, east of Kangaroo Island, S.A. On 6 September 1979 I visited North
Fisherman Island some 5 km offshore from Green Head (about 21 km
north of Jurien Bay), W.A., where a small breeding colony of sea lions
resides.

North Fisherman Island, 30°08’S., 114°57 , E., is only 1.5 hectares in
area and measures 110 m by 104 m. It is a low-lying aeolian limestone

Fig. 1.—Breeding bull (note whitish mane and relative size) and 13

breeding cows.

203

island, wedge-shaped in elevation and rising to about 10 m above sea level
(Johnstone, 1978)* There is a sandy beach on the eastern side of the island
where small boats can land through gaps in surrounding reefs.

On the day in question, which was fine (16°C) and calm with a light
north-westerly breeze, 39 sea lions were present on the beach or at the
water’s edge. This number was made up of 19 breeding females, 17 pups
and yearlings, and 3 males—two adult and one sub-adult. 1 wo very small
dead pups were also found further inland on higher ground. The youngest
living pups were estimated to be from 6 to 8 weeks old and the age
range of the pups and yearlings was similar to that observed on Kangaroo
Island at about the same time of this year (Ling and Walker, unpublished
data). Thus pupping appears to have occurred simultaneously at both
localities.

How'ever, breeding is not contemporaneous over the sea lion s entire
range in South Australia, since pupping did not occur simultaneously at
other colonies, e.g., Dangerous Reef, Nuyts Archipelago and Olive and
Purdie Islands. To date there is insufficient information to be able to
determine the reproductive cycle at these known breeding sites.

The figures reported here agree closely with those of Chapman and
Kitchener (1977) who also stated that the period of births appears to
extend throughout the year, with the proportion of newborn young in
the colony being highest in May and June. However, Ling and Walker
(1978) have suggested that Neophoca has an 18-month breeding cycle—-
at least on Kangaroo Island—and it would be interesting to ascertain if
this is true of North Fisherman Island.

A careful analysis of pup counts and birth dates, particularly among
individually recognisable cows (in the absence of marked animals), should
provide a more precise indication of the sea lion’s breeding cycle near
the western end of its range. Furthermore, similar data are required from
all major breeding sites throughout the range in order to determine the
population trends of this widely ranging, numerically rare species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful to Mr. R. E. Johnstone of the Western Australian
Museum for providing boat transport to the island and for commenting
on this paper, as did Greg Walker also.

REFERENCES

CHAPMAN, A., and D. J. KITCHENER. 1977. II. Mammals of Cockle¬
shell Gully Reserve and adjacent area, pp. 15-35. In A Vertebrate
Survey of Cockleshell Gully Reserve, Western Australia. Rec. West.
A ust. Mus., Suppl. no. 4.

JOHNSTONE, R. E. 1978. North Fisherman Island, Western Australia.
Corella (May, 1978): 43-45.

LING, J. K. and G. E. WALKER. 1978. An 18-month breeding cycle in
the Australian sea lion? Search, 9: 464-465.

— JOHN K. LING, South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

CORRECTION

Two corrections are necessary for the Field and Study item, “Breed¬
ing behaviour in the atherine fish Craterocephalus”, by W. H. Butler in
the preceding issue, W. A list. Nat., 14 (6), August 1979: 158.

In paragraph 3, the sentences in line 5, following “. . . vigorous jets
of water to be thrown into the air”, should read: “As each wave ebbed
fish were left stranded headstanding above the water-line. The vertically
held tails flicked vigorously.”

In paragraph 2 the measurements in line 9 should read “35.0 to 40.0

mm ”

204

THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST

Vol. 14

August 22, 1980

No. 8

A GASCOYNE JUNCTION BIRD LIST
By MAX HOWARD, Roleystone.

INTRODUCTION

The township of Gascoyne Junction is situated approximately 174
kilometres east of Carnarvon, with access by dirt roads, that are impassable
after heavy rains. The Shire of the Upper Gascoyne consists of 55,734
square kilometres and has a population of some 300 people, of which
about 30 people reside in the townsite of Gascoyne Junction. The town-
site is situated near the junction of the Gascoyne and the Lyons rivers,
and the main industry being the pastoral industry, with a small amount
of mining. Average rainfall is approximately 200 mm a year, consisting of
summer thunderstorms, and winter rains. The town water supply is drawn
from beneath the Gascoyne river bed with the aid of pumps.

VEGETATION

The area in which observations were made consists of very open
country, dotted with small scrub, bushes, and trees. River gums are plenti¬
ful on the river banks.

AREA OF OBSERVATION

Areas of observation include the townsite, and about a 10 kilometre
radius of the townsite, river crossing, and about 6 kilometres up the river,
east of the townsite, and the junction dam that is situated about 10
kilometres south-west of the townsite.

PERIOD OF OBSERVATION

Observations were carried out between February 20, 1979, and April
15, 1979, whilst the observer was relieving at the Gascoyne Junction
Police Station. Two one-day observations were also carried out on Janu¬
ary 21, 1979, and August 5, 1979.

The Gascoyne river flowed on February 15, 1979.

SPECIES LIST

Emu (Dromains novaehollandiae). Common, small parties of up to 4 birds
sighted.

Little Grebe (Podiceps novaehollandiae). One bird sighted on two occasions
at the Junction dam.

Hoary-headed Grebe (P. poliocephalus). Common, observed in small
numbers at the junction dam, and on the river, in breeding plumage.
Pelican (Pelecanus conspicillatus). One bird sighted on most days on the
river.

Darter (Anhinga rufa). Observed on four occasions east of the river
crossing.

Little Pied Cormorant (Phalacrocorax melanoleucos). One bird seen on
two occasions east of the river crossing.

Pied Cormorant (Phalacrocorax varias). One bird sighted on two occasions
near the river crossing.

Black Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). One bird sighted on one occasion
east of the river crossing.

205

Little Black Cormorant (Phalacrocorax sulcirostris). Very common, sighted
on most days in small numbers, largest being 14 birds.

White-necked Heron (Ardea pacifica). One bird sighted on two occasions
near river crossing.

White-faced Heron (Ardea novaehollandiae). Common on river in small
numbers. Before the river flowed the largest number, eight birds, was
sighted. After river flowed largest number sighted was four birds.

Large Egret (Egretta alba). Common, never more than two individuals
together.

Little Egret (Egretta garzetta). Sighted on three occasions on river, largest
group sighted being two birds.

Nankeen Night Heron (Nycticorax caledonicus). Common along river, eight
birds largest number sighted, of which four were juveniles.

Straw-necked Ibis (Threskiornis spinicollis). Observed on river on three
occasions, largest number sighted, two birds.

Yellow-billed Spoonbill (Platalea flavipes). Observed on two occasions on
river, largest number sighted being four birds.

Black Swan (Cygnus atratus). Common in small numbers on river.

Mountain Duck (Tadorna tadornoides). One male and female sighted on
river on one occasion.

Black Duck (Anas superciliosa). Found in small numbers on the river and
junction dam.

Grey Teal (Anas gibberlfrons). The most common of the duck lamily in
area and found in large numbers on the river, junction dam, and
roadside clay pans.

White-eyed Duck (Ay thy a australis). Observed on two occasions at the
Junction dam, largest number observed four males and one female.

Pink-eared Duck (Malacorhynchus membranaceus). Four birds sighted on
the river on one occasion.

Wood Duck (Chenonetta jubata). Five birds sighted on one occasion cast
of the river crossing. .

Whistling Kite (Haliastur sphenurus). Observed on one occasion flying
along river bank near crossing.

Goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus). Common, one bird sighted on most days
near river. Sighted on two occasions over townsite.

Little Eagle (Hieraaetus morphnoides). One bird (light phase) sighted flying
over the river near the crossing.

Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila atidax). Appears moderately common away
from the town area.

Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides). Observed in small numbers in the
flat open country. One bird with a broken wing located in townsite.

Little Falcon (Falco longipennis). Observed on two occasions very early
in the morning at the Police Station.

Coot (Fulica atra). Very common since the river flowed on February 15,
1979.

Red-kneed Dotterel (Charadrius cinctus). Noted as very common on Janu¬
ary 21, 1979, before river flowed, but not sighted since.

Black-fronted Dotterel (Charadrius melanops). Very common before river
flowed but only sighted in small numbers since.

Black-winged Stilt (Hirnantopus himantopus). Sighted in small numbers
on river, largest number six birds.

Avocet (Recurvirostra novaehollandiae). Two birds sighted on January
21, 1979.

Greenshank (Tringa nebularia). Three birds sighted east of the crossing.

Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos). Observed in small numbers on
the river.

Peaceful Dove (Geopelia striata). Noted as common along the river banks,
and open country bordering the river.

Diamond Dove (Geopelia cuneata). Observed on two occasions, near the
Junction dam.

Crested Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes). Very common.

206

Little Corella (Cacatua sanguined). Very common, in large numbers along
the river.

Galah (Cacatua roseicapilla). Common around townsite and river.

Cockaticl (Leptolophus hollandicus). Four birds observed flying over the
rubbish dump on one occasion.

Port Lincoln Parrot (liarnardius zonarius). Common along river.

Blue-winged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachii). Common along river.

Sacred Kingfisher (Halcyon sancta). Common along river.

Rainbow-bird (Merops ornatus). Noted as common along river.

White-backed Swallow (Cheramoeca leucosterna). Observed on two occa¬
sions along the river.

Welcome Swallow (Hirundo neoxena). Observed on one occasion near the
river crossing.

Fairy Martin (Petrochelidon ariel). Common along the river.

Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae). Very common around townsite.

Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) found in small
numbers around town, river, and creeks.

Crested Bell-bird (Oreoica gutturalis). Observed on one occasion singing
from a small bush, near the junction dam.

Willy Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys). Common in small numbers.

Wcdgcbill (Psophodes occidentalis). Moderately common in the open scrub
country.

Cinamon Quail-thrush (Cinclosonui cinnamomeum). One bird sighted on
road leading to junction dam.

White-browed babbler (Pomatostomus superciliosus). Moderately common
in small numbers in country bordering the river.

White-winged Wren (Malurus leuconotus). Common in the open scrub
country.

Banded White-face (Aphelocephala nigricincta). Observed eight birds on
rocky country, south of the townsite.

Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater (Acanthagenys rujogularis). Common on the
river, and around the junction dam. Always near water.

Yellow-throated Miner (Manorina flavigula). Very plentiful along the river.

Singing Honeyeater (Meliphaga virescens). Observed in small numbers
around the junction dam.

White-plumed Honeyeater (Meliphaga penicillata). Very common along
the river and in the townsite. The most common of the honeycaters.

Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia castanotis). Common near the river, and the
open country.

Mudlark (Grallina cyanoleuca). Common along the river and townsite.

Black-faced Woodswallow (Artamus cinercus). Observed in small numbers
in the open scrub country.

Pied Butcher-bird (Cracticus nigrogularis). Very common in townsite and
in small numbers on the river. Both adult and immature birds sighted.

Black-backed Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen). Common around the town,
and on the river.

Crow? (Corvidae). I was unable to identify this species without a hand
held specimen. However it was only sighted in very small numbers
in the areas visited. Largest flock sighted was of four birds.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE ABUNDANCE AND FOOD
PREFERENCES OF HONEYEATERS (MELIPHAGIDAE) AT WON-
GAMINE, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By BRIAN G. COLLINS, Biology Department, Western Australian Insti¬
tute of Technology, Hayman Road, Bentley, 6102. Western Australia.

ABSTRACT

Populations of honeveaters were studied at Wongamino. W.A. for a period of two
years from December, 1976. Seasonal changes in food preferences and abundance of
the major species were recorded and related to the flowering phenoiogy and nectar
(energy) production by plants in the study areas. Although all honeyeaters seemed to be
opportunistic feeders, they did show preferences for certain plants that seemed to be based
largely on the total energy made available by these plants.

207

INTRODUCTION

One of the most abundant and diverse families of Australian birds
are the honeyeaters (Meliphagidae). Numerous recent studies have indicated
that nectar is commonly used as a source of food by members of this group
(e.g. Recher and Abbott, 1970; Ford and Paton, 1977; Paton and Ford,
1977; Collins and Clow, 1978; Collins and Morellini, 1979). Evidence has
also been assembled which suggests that many of these birds make some
use of other food resources such as insects and pollen (c.g. Ford and
Paton, 1977; Pyke, 1979). One of the major purposes of this paper is to
describe the food preferences of several species of south-west Australian
honeyeaters.

Seasonal variations in the population sizes of different honeyeaters in
different parts of Australia have been reported. For instance, population
shifts have been shown to occur as birds follow the flowering of plants
(e.g. Keast, 1968). Even relatively sedentary populations show fluctuations
in density and micro-habitat preference, presumably in response to changes
in the availability of food and other environmental parameters (c.g.
Slater, 1974; Collins and Clow, 1978). The second major objective of the
present paper is to document variations in population densities of several
south-west Australian honeycater species, and attempt to explain these
changes in terms of the flowering phenology of plants visited by the birds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Investigations were carried out at the Wongamine Fauna and Flora
Reserve. 125 kilometres north-east of Perth, Western Australia. This reserve
is 259 hectares in area and is surrounded by agricultural land. The study
area selected within the reserve comprised approximately five hectares
of heath, surrounded by Eucalyptus-Dry andra woodland.

Several honeyeater species were found to occur in the study area. All
of these were seen to probe the flowers of plants at some stage. Species
such as the Yellow-plumed Honeyeater (Meliphaga ornata), Tawny-crowned
Honeyeater (Gliciphila melanops) and the Red Wattlebird (Anthochaera
carunculata) appeared to be present in very small numbers, and have
therefore been excluded from further consideration in this paper. The four
species for which data were gathered are the Western Spinebill (Acantho-
rhynchus superciliosus), the Brown Honeyeater (Lichmera indistincta), the
Brown-headed Honeyeater (Melithreptus brevirostris) and the White-check¬
ed Honeyeater (PhyUdonyris nigra).

Over a period of two years, commencing in December 1976, observa¬
tions of birds present in the study area were made at intervals of approxi¬
mately three months. Records were kept of the numbers and species of
birds observed, the plants visited and the feeding strategics adopted.

Mist nets were used to capture birds at the sampling sites. After
measurement of body weight, each bird was placed in a small wire trap
under which paper tissues were spread. Faecal samples deposited on the
tissues were subsequently stained with methylene blue and examined under
the microscope for evidence of pollen grains and pieces of arthropod
exoskeleton.

All plants visited by honeyeaters vvere identified, and their habits
and floral characteristics recorded. Representative members of each spe¬
cies were marked with numbered tags so that estimates of flower abund¬
ance could be made on the same plants during each visit to the study area.
Pollen was collected from representative plants and used as a basis for
identification of pollen grains present in faecal samples obtained from
honeyeaters. Capillary tubes were also used to measure the early-morning
“standing crops” of nectar present in representative flowers from each
species.

RESULTS

Numerous plant species were found in the study area. Although most
of these were used as refuges by honeyeaters on occasions, only those listed
in Table 1 had flowers that were probed by the birds. In some cases, the

208

flowers were separate. In others, they were grouped in multiple heads
such as those found in Banksia and Dryandra. There were also consider¬
able variations in flower colour, appearance of pollen grains, “standing
crop” volumes of nectar, and accessibility of the nectar to honeycaters.
The only species from which nectar could not be collected was Nuytsia
floribunda. Nevertheless, it was observed that the flowers of this species
produced copious quantities of pollen, attracted large numbers of insects
and were frequently probed by several honeyeater species.

TABLE 1.—CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT SPECIES VISITED BY HONEYEATERS AT

WONGAMINE RESERVE.

Plant species

Habit

Abundance

Floweringf Mean nectar*

season volume (^l/flower)

Pollen grain
shape

Adenanthos

argyrea

small

shrub

rare

Aug-Dec(Sep)

11.3

triangular

Adenanthos

cygnorum

medium

shrub

common

May-Nov(Jun-Sep)

13.0

triangular

Anigozanthus

humilis

small

shrub

rare

Aug-Oct(Sep)

15.0

cylindrical

Banksia

attenuata

small

tree

rare

Sep-Jan(Dec)

200.0

kidney-shaped

Calothamnus

quadrifidus

large

shrub

abundant

Nov-Jan(Dec)

9.6

triangular

Calothamnus

sanguineus

medium

shrub

common

Apr-Oct(Jun)

8.5

triangular

Dryandra

sessllis

small

tree

abundant

May-Nov(Sep)

54.3

banana-shaped

Eucalyptus

drummondii

medium

tree

common

May-Oct(Sep)

39.4

triangular

Eucalyptus

macrocarpa

straggling

mallee

rare

Oct-Jan(Dec)

164.0

triangular

Eucalyptus
wandoo

large

tree

common

Apr-Sep(Jun)

—

triangular

Nuytsia

floribunda

medium

rare

Nov-Jan(Dec)

triangular

tName of month abbreviated using first three letters; month of peak flower abundance

shown in brackets.

•Nectar samples were "standing crops" collected at various times between 0600 and
0900 hrs; "flower" should be taken to designate a single flower or multiple head, depend¬
ing on the plant species concerned.

The flowering seasons of plants visited by honcyeaters are indicated
in Table 1. At least one species is in flower, and thus nectar is available,
for most times of the year, apart from late January, February and per¬
haps early March.

TABLE 2.—ABUNDANCE AND FEEDING HABITS OF HONEYEATERS STUDIED

Species

Body

weight

(gm)

Overall

abundance

Time of*
peak
density

Time of minimum
density/
absence*

Evidence of food eaten
Nectar Arthropods Pollen

Acanthorhynchus

superciliosus

10.8 ± 0.7

rare

Sep

Jan-Mar

Lichmera

indistincta

11.1 ± 0.8

abundant

Sep-Dec

Jan-Mar

Melithreptus

brevirostris

12.8 ± 0.7

common

Jun

Nov-Apr

Phylidonyris

nigra

18.3 ± 1.1

common

Sep-Dec

Jan-Apr

•

•Name of month abbreviated as in Table 1.

Uchmera indistincta is the dominant honeyeater species at Wonga-
mine, both numerically and in terms of persistence in the area throughout
the year (Table 2). Nevertheless, there does not seem to be a clear par-

209

titioning of floral resources between this and other honeyeater species
for most of the year. Instead, the birds that are present tend to visit most
plants that are in flower. This observation is supported by the existence
of a variety of pollen grain types in all bird faeces. It was noted, however,
that the flowers of some plants were more frequently probed than those
of others, e.g. Dryandra sessilis and Eucalyptus drununondii were both
more “popular” with Lichmera indistincta than Calothanmus sanguineus
and Adenanthos cygnorum in September. Some evidence was also obtained
which suggested that daily temporal changes in flowei preference some¬
times occurred. For instance, it appeared that Lichmera indistincta at
Wongaminc in September, 1978, favoured the flowers of Eucalyptus drum -
mondii early in the morning, whereas Dryandra sessilis was visited more
frequently later in the day.

Within the study area, honeyeaters tended to be most abundant where
plants were in flower. For instance, during the period from June to Sep¬
tember, they occurred mostly in the Eucalyptus-Dryandra woodland. By
December, however, very few honeyeaters were to be sighted in this area;
instead, they were abundant in and around the Calothanmus quadrifidus
heath association.

In addition to probing flowers, most honeyeater species were seen
to capture arthropods by hawking and/or gleaning from the bark of
plants, and all produced faeces containing arthropod exoskelctons. The
general impression obtained, however, was that overt arthropod capture
was much less frequent than flower probing.

DISCUSSION

Evidence presented in this paper suggests that many, if not all, of
the honeyeaters present at Wongamine feed by probing a variety of flow¬
ers and cither hawking or gleaning for arthropods. These observations are
generally in accord with those reported for a variety of honeyeaters at
other locations (e.g. Recher and Abbott, 1970; Ford and Paton, 1976;
Ford and Paton, 1977). There is no doubt that pollen is ingested by
honeyeaters when they probe flowers. In many instances, faecal samples
were packed with pollen grains, some of which appeared to be empty.
Nevertheless, the precise nutritional role of pollen remains uncertain.
Churchill and Christensen (1970) have argued that pollen from Karri
(Eucalyptus diversicolor) is a major energy-releasing component of the
staple diet for the brush-tongued Purple-crowned Lorikeet (Glossopsitta
porphyrocephala) in south-western W.A., but Hopper and Burbidge (1979)
have recently raised serious doubts as to whether this is correct. It now
seems more likely that pollen supplements arthropods and nectar as a
source of amino-acids. If this is the situation in honeyeaters, most of the
energy required would presumably be supplied cither by carbohydrates
that are present in the nectar or by arthropods (Collins and Clow, 1978;
Collins and Morellini. 1979). More information must be gathered before
the relative value of arthropods and nectar as energy sources can be
accurately assessed, although the close agreement between flower density
and apparent honeyeater abundance suggests that nectar may be generally
more important.

Assuming that nectar is usually the principal energy source, there
would seem to be few occasions when individual birds might be expected
to prefer nectar from a particular plant species at Wongamine because
of its superior calorific (energetic) value. For instance. Eucalyptus drum -
mondii , Adenanthos cygnorum, Calothamnus sanguineus, and Dryandra
sessilis, which flower simultaneously for several months of the year, pro¬
duce nectar with similar concentrations and energetic values (Collins and
Morellini, 1979). Eucalyptus macrocarpa and Banksia attenuata, on the
other hand, produce significantly less concentrated nectar in December
at Wongamine than does Calothamnus quadrifidus, and might therefore
be less attractive to honeyeaters. The foraging strategy of the birds is un¬
likely, however, to be determined simply by the concentration of nectar
available. Other factors such as the quantities of nectar produced and the

210

distances that birds have to fly in order to obtain the nectar would also
be important.

“Standing crop” volumes of nectar obtained from the flowers of some
plant species suggest that there are two classes of plant—those whose flow¬
ers contain relatively small volumes of nectar and those that arc capable
of producing large volumes. It would appear that the large volume pro¬
ducers are capable of making significantly greater quantities of energy
available per flower than the plants that produce relatively little nectar
(Table 3). When estimates of total energy availability are made, however,
it becomes apparent that the major nectar (energy) producers on a flowcr-
to-flower basis, are not necessarily those that make the greatest total
contribution. A good illustration of this is given by plants located in the
heath area at Wongaminc in December. Although inferior in terms of
energy produced per flower, Calothamnus quadrifidus has such a high
flower density that it contributes far more total energy than either Banksia
attenuate or Eucalyptus macrocarpa. This, together with the fact that
energetic costs involved in moving from flower to flower in the dense
stands of Calothamnus quadrifidus must be lower than for the other,
more widely dispersed plants, helps to explain the popularity of this species
with honeyeaters such as Lichmcra indistincta and Phylidonyris nigra.
Similar arguments can be advanced to explain the apparent preference for
Eucalyptus drummondii and Dryandra sessilis during June and September.

TABLE 3.—ENERGY AVAILABILITY IN STUDY AREA AT WONGAMINE.

Plant species

Energy availability
per flower
(cal/flower)*

Peak flower
numbers
(f 1/100m 2 ) * *

Total energy
availability
(cal/100m 2 )

(a) Small volume
producers

Adenanthos

cygnorum

13.3

628(J)

8,352

Calothamnus

quadrifidus

9.6

22.200(D)

213,120

Calothamnus

sanguineus

7.7

528(J)

4,066

(b) Large volume
producers

Banksia attenuata

122.3

4(D)

489

Dryandra sessilis

79.6

267(J)

21,253

Eucalyptus

drummondii

29.4

6,480(J)

190,512

Eucalyptus

macrocarpa

77.7

8(D)

622

* Values calculated from data supplied in Table 1, assuming 1.3496 cal/^l for 34.2%
sucrose solution (Collins and Morellini, 1979).

**(J) denotes values for Juno, and (D) December.

In addition to movements of honeyeaters associated with the flowering
of plants, there are seasonal changes in overall honeyeater abundance;
greatest bird densities generally correspond to periods of peak flower
(energy) abundance. Nevertheless, there arc significant differences between
the patterns for different honeyeaters. For instance, Lichmcra indistincta
and Phylidonyris nigra are abundant in December, although Melithreptus
brevirostris and Acanthorhynchus superciliosus have virtually disappeared
from the study area by this time. Further investigations must be performed
before it will be possible to explain such differences in bird abundance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Permission to conduct studies at Wongaminc and Gungin Gully was
given by the Western Australian Department of Fisheries and Wildlife.
Able technical assistance was provided by Mr. R. Allison, Mrs. G. Cary,

Mr. G. Packard and students of the Graduate Diploma in Natural
Resources course at the WAIT.

REFERENCES

CHURCHILL, D. M., and P. CHRISTENSEN. 1970. Observations on
pollen harvesting by brush-tongued lorikeets. A list J. Zool., 18:
427-437.

COLLINS, B. G., and H. CLOW. 1978. Feeding behaviour and energetics
of the Western Spinebill, Acanthorhynchus superciliosus. A list. J.
Zool., 26: 269-277.

COLLINS, B. G., and P. C. MORELLINI. 1979. The influence of nectar
concentration and time of day upon energy intake and expenditure
by the Singing Honcyeater, Meliphaga virescens. Physiol. Zool., 52:
165-175.

FORD, H. A., and D. C. PATON. 1976. Resource partitioning and com¬
petition in honcyeaters of the genus Meliphaga. A list. J . Ecol.,
1: 281-287.

FORD, H. A., and D. C. PATON. 1977. The comparative ecology of ten
species of honeyeaters in South Australia. A list. J. Ecol., 2: 399-407.

HOPPER, S. D., and A. A. BURBIDGE. 1979. Feeding behaviour of a
Purple-crowned Lorikeet on flowers of Eucalyptus buprestitim. Emu,
79: 40-42.

KEAST, A. 1968. Seasonal movements in the Australian honeyeaters
(Mcliphagidae) and their ecological significance. Emu, 67: 159-209-

PATON, D C. and H. A. FORD. 1977. Pollination by birds of native
plants in South Australia. Emu, 77: 73-85.

PYKE, G. H. 1979. The foraging behaviour of honeyeaters: a review and
some comparisons with hummingbirds. Aust. J. Ecol. (submitted).

RECHER, H. F., and I. J. ABBOTT. 1970. The possible significance of
hawking by honcyeaters and its relation to nectar feeding. Emu,
70: 90.

SLATER, P. 1974. A field guide to Australian birds. Volume 2, Passerines.
Rigby, Adelaide.

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION
OF DRY AN DR A ARB ORE A (PROTEACEAE)

By G. J. KEIGHERY, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, West Perth, 6005.

INTRODUCTION

Dryandra arborea C. A. Gardn. is the most recently described species
of the endemic South-Western Australian genus, Dryandra. It is also the
most inland member of this genus.

DISTRIBUTION

The species is confined to jasperlite (banded iron formations) hills in
the North-Western Goldfields. Previously thought confined to the Die
Hardy Ranges, Mt. Jackson and Koolyanobbing Ranges, surveys by the
author with the Western Australian Museum Survey Department have
located populations on the eastern ranges; Mt. Dimer, the Hunt Ranges
and Bungalbin Ranges. We failed to locate any Dryandra arborea in the
High Clere Hills (near Bullfinch) and the Mt. Manning Ranges were
not visited.

The largest populations are found in the Mt. Jackson-Bungalbin
Ranges which are contiguous by low jasperlite rises.

BIOLOGY

Dryandra arborea grows as a large shrub-small tree of up to 6 metres

212

in height, occasionally with a basal trunk of c. 1 metre diameter. Plants
are killed by fire, and regenerate from seed.

During May 1978 plants were sporadically flowering, with 5-10 open
inflorescences per plant (flowering occurs between March and October,
there are no summer records).

Inflorescences were visited by Spiny-cheekcd and Singing Honeyeaters.

ASSOCIATED FLORA

Tetratheca harperi F. MuclI. (Tremandraceac) is presently known only
from the Mt. Jackson-Bungalbin Ranges, where it grows in red skeletal
soil over jasperlite. This species flowers sporadically according to rainfall.
It is an isolated unique species in the genus, its closest relative being
Tetratheca halmaturina J. M. Black; a Kangaroo Island endemic (Thomp¬
son, 1975).

Eucalyptus formanii C. A. Gardn. Once considered endemic to the
Mt. Jackson region, collections at Perth now span Rainy Rocks, Pigeon
Rocks, Die Hardy Ranges, Evanston and a tentative collection from near
Lake King (Keighcry and Marchant, 1980). However, the ranges hold
the northernmost populations of the species, and the easternmost popula¬
tions of Eucalyptus ehbanoensis (Keighery and Marchant, 1980).

Acanthocarpus sp. now (Gk 2471). This undescribed species occurs in
discrete disjunct populations between East Yuna and Mt. Jackson. The
populations in the Mt. Jackson Ranges are the most inland records for
this endemic genus,

Conostylis androstenvna Lindl. sssp. argentea J. W. Green was located
in the Bungalbin Ranges (GK 1759). This now forms the most inland
record for the genus, the previous limit being thought to be Duladgin
Rock, some 85 kilometres south-west (C.T.R.C. Report, 1974).

An area of yellow sand plain, dominated by Eucalyptus leptopoda and
E. hurracoppinenis , contains an undescribcd genus of Epacridaceae (Gk
1758), and warrants conservation.

CONSERVATION

Dryandra arhorea does not occur on the loamy plains between the
ranges. Hence the species exists as a series of disjunct populations. Several
reserves will therefore be required to conserve this unique species. One
reserve should cover the southern populations in the Koolyanobbing
Ranges, another the northern in the Die Hardy Ranges. The greatest need
is however, for a large reserve covering the Mt. Jackson-Bungalbin Ranges.
This would preserve the biggest population and the associated flora
mentioned previously.

The Conservation Through Reserves Committee's (1974) report recom¬
mended that the Mt. Manning/Die Hardy and Mt. Jackson ranges be
reserved. I consider an extension to include the Bungalbin Ranges an
absolute necessity. The major flora of Bungalbin is also quite different
being a mixture of malice (Eucalyptus ehbanoensis) and trees of E. cylin-
drocarpa over Plectrachne sp. This forms an extremely attractive, and rare
association which needs adequate conservation. No reserves exist in the
region at the present time.

REFERENCES

ANON, 1974. Conservation Reserves in Western Australia. Report of the
Conservation Through Reserves Committee. Environmental Protec¬
tion Authority, Perth.

KEIGHERY, G. J. and N. G. MARCHANT, 1980. Distribution and
Conservation of the genus Eucalyptus in Western Australia. Kings
Park Unpub. Report No. 9.

THOMPSON, J. 1975. A Revision of the genus Tetratheca. Telopea,
1: 139-216.

213

THE EFFECTS OF WILDFIRE ON ARTHROPOD POPULATIONS
IN 3ARRXH-BANKSIA WOODLAND
By R. J. WHELAN*, W. LANGEDYK and A. S. PASHBY,

Zoology Department, University of Western Australia
Nedlands, W.A. 6009

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the response of arthropods to lire within the fortnight
immediately following burning. Arthropods were sampled in pitfall traps and by hand¬
searching in potential refuges in both burnt and unburnt areas. There were more
individuals representing more species in pitfall traps from the burnt area, suggesting
that many former foliage-inhabiting species survived and were restricted to ground level.
The natural histories of some of these species supported this view and several species
found in unburnt Banksia canopies were also sampled in pitfall traps in the burnt area.
The dense crowns of Macrozamia riedlei and Xanthorrhoea preissii provided refuges after
fire for several arthropod species not usually found there. The ability of arthropods to
survive predation and starvation until vegetation regeneration occurs is discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Natural bushfires have occurred in Western Australian dry sclero-
phyll forests and woodlands for a very long time, perhaps since the late
Tertiary (Main, 1976). Many plants of these ecosystems possess adaptations
which enable them to withstand fire and it is clear that periodical bush-
fires do not constitute major disturbances in fire-prone plant communities
(Whelan, 1977; Whelan and Main, in prep.). There are some studies on
mammals which show that some species can tolerate fire (Newsome
et al., 1975; Christensen, 1978; Main. 1978) but the data on invertebrates
are scarce (Bornemissza, 1969; Springett, 1976) and mainly restricted
to anecdotal observations.

Whelan and Main (in prep.) showed that fire caused a sufficient
reduction in populations of acridid grasshoppers to allow increased sur¬
vivorship of seedlings of some plant species and the protection from
grazing was more pronounced in a clean burn of large area than in small
burnt patches. Arthropods arc likely to be able to use small unburnt
refuges in even a hot, clean fire and from them reinvade burnt vegetation
as it regenerates. For example Bornemissza (1969) recorded a recovery
of insect fauna on shrubs and herbs within one year of burning.

In view of the lack of documentation described above, this study is
a comparative and quantitative analysis of arthropods found on the ground
after fire. The abundance of the ground fauna has been measured in both
burnt and unburnt Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginataj-Banksia woodland vege¬
tation and the species composition of fauna which use the plant species
as refuges has been analysed.

STUDY AREA

This work was undertaken at the University of Western Australia’s
Marsupial Breeding Station near Jandakot, about 25 km south of Perth.
The vegetation is typical of the Jarrah -Banksia association of the Bassen-
dean sands with scattered swampy areas dominated by paperbark (Melaleuca
preissiana) and Banksia littoralis (see Seddon, 1972). On 14 March 1977
a wildfire burned out about 100 hectares of the 290 ha research station,
destroying almost all the ground vegetation and many tree canopies. Some
small patches of unburnt vegetation (up to 10 m-) w'ere left where there
was insufficient ground litter to carry the fire. This study was started on
16 March, the second day after the fire.

METHODS

We used l in. diameter test-tubes containing 5% glycerine in 70%
ethanol as pitfall traps, arranged in 4 x 2 trap grids with test-tubes 60
cm apart. Two trap grids were placed in burnt vegetation, two in small
unburnt patches u'ithin the burnt area and two in unburnt vegetation
adjacent to the burnt area and of equivalent vegetational composition.
Test-tubes were placed in the ground on 16 March and emptied after
•Present address: Department of Zoology, University of Florida. Gainesville. Florida 32611.

214

1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 days. Samples from all 16 test-tubes from each trapping
area were grouped at each date and invertebrates were identified and
counted.

We also searched systematically for invertebrates in the crowns of
Macrozamia rledlei and Xanthorrhoea preissii plants which have been
suggested as potential refuges (J. C. Taylor, pers. comm.). On 16 March,
10 plants of each species were selected in both burnt and unburnt areas.
We searched deep in the crowns of both plants with trunks and plants
with foliage at ground level. To assess the suitability of unburnt canopies
as refuges, we collected arthropods from the canopies of 10 Banksia trees
in both burnt and unburnt areas, beating and shaking branches over large
plastic sheets.

Specimens of all species were lodged in the Zoology Department,
University of Western Australia. Identifications of ants were made by
Dr. J. D. Majer, Biology Department, Western Australian Institute of
Technology, and species numbers refer to his collections. Identifications
of spiders were made by Dr. B. Y. Main, Zoology Department, University
of W.A., and all other identifications were made by comparisons with
identified specimens at the Zoology Department or at the W.A. Depart¬
ment of Agriculture. Unidentifiable specimens were classified to family
using keys in C.S.I.R.O. (1970).

RESULTS

Pitfall trap samples

The catches of arthropods varied from day to day in all three trap¬
ping areas (Table 1) probably reflecting daily variations in temperature
and humidity. The arthropod fauna was richer and more abundant in
both burnt trapping areas than in the unburnt area. Samples from trap
grids in the burnt vegetation were very similar to those from the grids in
small, unburnt patches (Table 2) and for the purpose of comparing par¬
ticular species, we grouped these areas together. Of the 76 species trapped,
only six were found exclusively in the unburnt area and all were repre¬
sented by only a few individuals (Table 3). 27 species were common to
both burnt and unburnt areas and almost all of these, except the nitidulid
beetle and the Chironomid midge, are normally ground-dwelling or bur¬
rowing species (Table 4). 43 species appeared in burnt but not in unburnt
areas and many of these are foliage inhabiting species including mantids,
bugs and beetles (Table 5).

TABLE 1.—CUMULATIVE NUMBERS OF ARTHROPODS CAUGHT IN PITFALL TRAPS IN
TWO BURNT AND ONE UNBURNT TRAPSITE. INCREMENT FROM PREVIOUS TRAP DAY
SHOWN IN PARENTHESES.

Burnt

Unburnt

Unburnt patch

Burnt

172

136

594

(497)

638

(466)

345 (209)

748

(154)

836

(198)

411

(66)

905

(157)

1,043

(207)

499

(88)

1.070

(165)

1,233

(190)

535

(36)

1,240

(170)

1,446

(213)

620

(85)

TABLE 2.—NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS AND NUMBERS OF SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS
REPRESENTED IN PITFALL TRAP SAMPLES FROM THREE TRAPSITES OVER EIGHT

DAYS.

Unburnt patch

Burnt

Unburnt

Numbers

individuals

1,240

1,446

620

Numbers

species

215

TABLE 3.—SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS CAUGHT IN PITFALL TRAPS ONLY IN UNBURNT

VEGETATION.

Species

Number of individuals

CLASS INSECTA

Hymenoptera

Formicidae: Brachyponera sp. (46)

Coleoptera

Staphilinidae

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Phalangia (Opiliones)

Acarina sp. 2

Limnochares sp.

Aranaea

Salticidae

TABLE 4.—SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS CAUGHT IN PITFALL
AND UNBURNT VEGETATION.

TRAPS

IN BOTH

BURNT

Numbers of individuals burnt

Species

unburnt

unburnt patch

burnt

CLASS INSECTA

Hymenoptera

Formicidae: Camponotus sp.

(199)

480

794

147

(110)

184

165

147

(63)

MeranoDlus sp.

057)

—

210

(74)

—

(96)

Melophorus sp.

(227;

(221)

Stigmacros sp.

(396)

Tapinoma sp.

(78)

Chelaner sp.

(102)

—

Xiphomyrmex sp

(36)

Iridomyrmex sp.

(85)

175

(375)

Orthoptera

Gryllidae: sp. 1

Coleoptera

Nitidulidae: sp. 3

Unknown (larvae) sp. 1

—

Dermaptera

Labiduroidea sp. 1

—

Blattoidea

Blattidae: sp. 2

sp. 4

—

Thysanoptera sp. 1

—

Diptera

Chironomidae: sp. 1

—

CLASS COLEMBOLA

Colembola

Entomobryidae:

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Acarina sp. 1

Aranaea

Lycosidae: Lycosa serrata

Zodaridae: Storena sp.

Gnaphosidae: sp. 1

TABLE 5.—SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS CAUGHT

ONLY IN

PITFALL

. TRAPS 1

N THE

BURNT AREA. BOTH IN SMALL UNBURNT PATCHES AND

BURNT

VEGETATION.

Numbers of individuals

Species

CLASS INSECTA

Hymenoptera

Formicidae: Rhytidoponera sp.

(31)

Unburnt patch

Burnt

(32)

—

Iridomyrmex sp.

(217)

280

Melophorus sp.

(A1233)

Polyrachis sp.

(118)

216

Isoptera

Mantoidea

Hemiptera

Coleoptera

Crematogaster sp. (97)

Stigmacros sp. (113)
Xiphomyrmex sp. (36)

Mutillidae: sp. 1
sp. 2
sp. 3

Brachonidae: sp. 1
sp. 1

Mantidae: sp. 1

Cicadellidae
Reduvioidea, Aradidae

Reduviidae: sp. 1
sp. 2

Dermestidae

Thysanura

Blattoidea

Diptera

Curculionidae: sp. 1
Carabidae
Tenebrionidae
Scarabaeidae
Nitidulidae: sp. 1
sp. 2

Unknown sp. 2 (larva)

Lepismaiidae

Blattidae: sp. 1

sp. 3

Blaberidae

Culicidae

CLASS MYRIAPODA
Chilopoda

Scolopendridae: sp. 1

sp 2

Geophyllidae
CLASS CRUSTACEA

Peracarida (Isopoda)

Oniscoidea
CLASS ARACHNIDA
Acarina

sp. 3

Aranaea

Lycosidae: Lycosa immensuata

Dictynidae: Ixeuticus candidus
Clubionidae: Miturga sp.
Dipluridae: Aname
Ctenidae: Elassoctenus harpax

sp. 2

2 1

Refuges

More species of arthropods were found in burnt than in unburnt
X. preissii foliage and all animals in M. riedlei came from burnt plants
(Table 6). Animals either used these refuges during the fire or congregated
there in the two days between the fire and sampling. Several of the taxa
trapped in burnt and not unburnt areas (sec Table 5) were also found in
the crowns of hi. riedlei and X. preissii in the burnt area. These were the
ants Rhytidoponera sp. 31, Iridomyrmex sp. 217 and Polyrachis sp. 118;
the reduviid bug (sp. 1); the tcnebrionid and nitidulid (sp. 1) beetles and
the cockroach (Blattidae sp. 1).

217

TABLE 6.—SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS COLLECTED FROM TEN MACROZAMIA RIEDLEI
AND TEN XANTHORRHOEA PREISSII CROWNS IN BURNT AND UNBURNT AREAS.

MACROZAMIA RIEDLEI

CLASS INSECTA

Burnt

Unburnt

Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Rhytidoponera sp. (31)

Iridomyrmex sp. (217)

Coleoptera: Nitidulidae sp. 1

Blattoidea: Blattidae sp. 1

sp. 2

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Aranaea: Lycosidae. Lycosa sp. (immature)

Total number of species

XANTHORRHOEA PREISSII

CLASS INSECTA

Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Iridomyrmex sp. (85)

Polyrachis sp. (118)

Hemiptera: Reduviidae sp. 1
Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae. Adelium sp
Lycidae sp. 1

Chrysomelidae. Paropsis sp.

Blattoidea: Blattidae sp. 1
sp. 2

CLASS MVRIAPODA

Scolopendridae. Cryptops sp.

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Aranaea: Lycosidae, Lycosa serrata? (immature)

Salticidao sp. 1
Thomisidea sp. 1
Theridiidae sp. 1

Total number of species

Canopy samples

Bcinksia canopies in the burnt area yielded a much poorer fauna than
those in the unburnt area (Table 7). Three of the species found in the
unburnt canopies were also caught in pitfall traps in the burnt area (see
Table 5).

TABLE 7— SPECIES OF ARTHROPODS COLLECTED FROM TEN BANKSIA CANOPIES
IN BURNT AND UNBURNT AREAS.

CLASS INSECTA

Burnt

Unburnt

Hymenoptera: Formicidae, Polyrachis sp. (118)

Mantoidea: Mantidae sp. 1

Coleoptera: Curculionidae sp. 1

sp. 2

Coccinellidae, Orcus sp.

Lepidoptera: Lymantridae. Orygia sp. (larva)

CLASS ARACHNIDA

Acarina sp. 2

Aranaea: Sparassidae, Delena cancerides

Total number of species

DISCUSSION

The most interesting feature of this study is the abundance and
diversity of arthropod species caught in pitfall traps following fire. Close
examination of the natural histories of individual species and a knowledge
of where they may be found in unburnt vegetation would allow a good
interpretation of these data but this sort of information is lacking for
most species of Australian invertebrates. The data we have presented
suggest the following explanation. Many arthropods survive fire by various
means: burrowing, flying ahead of the flames or finding refuges, and
most of these species will be the normal inhabitants of the foliage and
stems of shrubs and trees. Those animals which survive will subsequently
be restricted to moving at ground level where they may then be caught
using the pitfall trap technique. Increases in numbers of ground-dwelling
species such as ants appearing in traps may reflect increased feeding

218

activity and foraging distances. We consider that these results reflect the
physical changes caused by fire, such as the removal of small stems and
foliage, and would be similar after mechanical clearing of all above¬
ground vegetation by slashing or mowing. These disturbances can be
seen as a simplification of the habitat from three to two dimensions.

Both M. riedlei and X. preissii, which are common at the Marsupial
Breeding Station, provided refuges for several arthropod groups. Although
this has been observed before, this study distinguished between species
normally found in these plants in the absence of fire and species which
use them only as a refuge. Other refuges common in areas which receive
a cool, patchy burn are fallen logs (Main, 1978; Major, pers. comm.).
The numbers of individuals which escape fire in refuges, and their sub¬
sequent survival, are important in determining whether they may reinvade
the regenerating vegetation. For several months after the fire we observed
a greatly increased frequency of feeding by insectivorous birds. Species
such as the Scarlet Robin (Petroica multicolor). Grey Fantail (Riphidura
fuliginosa), Rufous Whistler (Pachycephala rujiventris), Western Shrike-
thrush (Colluricincla rujiventris) and Magpie (Gymnorhina dorsalis) were
commonly seen feeding on the ground and possibly caused high mortalities
among the formerly arboreal arthropods, particularly as many species,
cryptically coloured and shaped in foliage, are conspicuous on the burnt,
black background. The predatory, burrowing arthropods such as spiders
and ants may also cause some mortality among the group of displaced
species.

Starvation may also lead to the extinction of displaced arthropod popu¬
lations after fire, although regrowth from rhizomes of monocotyledons
and lignotubers of shrubs is very rapid. The invertebrates which survive
fire will lack plant material both as food and as protection from predators
for several weeks. Predatory arthropods may show a pattern of post-fire
abundance followed by a population crash as prey populations increase
dramatically and then disappear. Groups such as spiders, however, can
withstand long periods without feeding (B. Y. Main, pers. comm.) and
growth rates of wolf spiders (Lycosidae), which can be easily measured,
would reflect changes in ground arthropod populations. Long term,
quantitative studies are required to determine these sorts of population
changes after fire and one particularly important feature of the post-fire
situation is the suitability of small, unburnt patches of vegetation in
burnt areas as reservoirs of invertebrates from which they can invade
the regenerating vegetation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge discussions with Professor A. R. Main
and Dr. W. J. Bailey who read early drafts of this paper. Mr. B. T. Clay
of the Marsupial Breeding Station assisted us with practical aspects of
this study.

REFERENCES

BORNEMISSZA, 1969. The reinvasion of burnt woodland areas by insects
and mites. Abstract cited in Proc. Ecol. Soc. A list. , 4: 138.
CHRISTENSEN, P. E. S. 1978. The biology of Bettongia penicillata Gray,
1837 and Macropus eugenii Desmarest, 1804 in relation to fire. Ph.D.
Thesis, Zoology Department, University of Western Australia.

MAIN, A. R. 1976. Adaptations of Australian vertebrates to desert con¬
ditions. In Evolution of Desert Biota (Ed. D. W. Goodall), Proc.
1st Int. Congr. Syst. Evol. Biol., August 1973, Boulder, Colorado.
250 pp.

MAIN, A. R. 1978. Fire tolerance of heathland animals. In Ecosystems of
the World: Heath lands and Related Shrublands (Ed. R. L. Specht).
Elsevier, Amsterdam (in press).

NEWSOME, A. E., J. MclLROY, and P. CATLING. 1975. The effects
of an extensive wildfire on populations of twenty ground vertebrates
in south east Australia. Proc. Ecol. Soc. A list., May 1975, pp. 107-123.

219

SPRINGETT, J. A. 1976. The effects of prescribed burning on the soil
fauna and on litter decomposition in Western Australian forests.
Aust. J. Ecol., 1: 83-87.

WHELAN, R. J. 1977. The influence of insect grazers on the establishment
of post-fire plant populations. Ph.D. Thesis, Zoology Department,
University of Western Australia.

WHELAN. R. J. and A. R. MAIN. 1979. Insect grazing and post-fire plant
succession in south-west Australian woodland. A list. J. Ecol., 4 (4)
(in press).

A BIRD CENSUS OF GARDEN ISLAND, W.A.

By S. J. J. F. DAVIES, Waters Upton, Mt. Helena, W.A.

INTRODUCTION

Following the establishment of HMAS Stirling on Garden Island,
W.A. (32°15’S, 115 0 41’E), the Australian Department of Defence has
taken an active interest in the environmental management of the island.
An expression of this interest was the approval given by the Commodore
of HMAS Stirling for a party from the Western Australian Group of the
RAOU to visit the island during the weekend March 17/18, 1979 and
survey it as part of the Atlas of Australian Birds. So that the data col¬
lected could be compared with that obtained by other parties on subsequent
visits, a point count census was conducted.

METHODS

Census methods have been well reviewed by Robbins (1978) who
indicates that in the northern hemisphere the Indices Ponctuals d’Abon-
dance, IPA, method is acceptable for forest birds in the breeding season
but not so good in the non-breeding season because so many birds form
nomadic or migratory flocks, greatly increasing the variability of a
series of observations. In Western Australia, however, many species hold
territories throughout the year and for these species the IPA method can
probably be applied, with qualifications, throughout the year. Robbins
(1978) indicates that at least two counts are needed. In the present series
of observations it was not practical to make two counts at the same
place and time on different days, nor, of course, could methods of assess¬
ment appropriate to the breeding season be adopted. Some modification
of the methods advocated by Ferry and Frochot (1970), therefore, had
to be made.

The vegetation of Garden Island has been described by McArthur
(1957) and recently McArthur and Bartle (1978) have published a vege¬
tation map of the area. The vegetation is largely unchanged by European
.settlement and is dominated by Callitris preissii, Acacia rostellifera and
Melaleuca lanceolata. The structure of the vegetation is unlike that of the
mainland because it usually has only a single layer, shrub and herb layers
being very poorly represented in stands of the dominant trees. The island
has been isolated from the mainland for at least 4,000 years and perhaps
for as long as 100,000 years (McArthur, 1957). Abbott (1980) published
a general account of the birds of Garden Island based on several recent
visits and reviewed earlier literature.

Garden Island was visited for a day in August, 1978 and a general
appreciation of its layout and bird life obtained. On March 17, 1979,
seven sites were selected covering the five main vegetation associations
on the island.

Table 1 gives the vegetation type sampled at each site, following the
description of McArthur and Bartle (1978). The Australian Map Grid
reference for the first of each quadrats at each site is also given, because
this grid is printed on McArthur and Bartle’s map. At each site six quad-

220

rats were established, 100 m apart, approximately in a straight line, but
usually following roads or tracks. At each quadrat a marker was placed
to indicate its centre and a second marker, 30 m due north, visible from
the centre, placed to indicate its perimeter. Each quadrat was taken to
be a circle of 30 m radius from the marked centre. Observers working in
pairs were asked to visit three adjacent quadrats, starting on the first at
0630 hrs on March 18. At each quadrat they were asked to record on a
sheet of radial graph paper the species of bird they saw, the numbers
and direction of flight and locate these details on the graph paper as if
the graph paper was a map of the quadrat. They were asked to use the
symbols of the International Bird Census Committee (1969), to spend 20
minutes recording at each quadrat, then walk to the next adjacent quadrat
and repeat the procedure until the three quadrats were covered. Except
in one case, recording was completed by 0800. Observers were asked to
record merely the number they contacted and not to try and evaluate
how many individuals were involved.

TABLE 1.—THE VEGETATION ASSOCIATIONS AND GRID REFERENCES OF THE SITES
USED DURING THE BIRD CENSUS ON GARDEN ISLAND, W.A. IN MARCH, 1979.

Site

Vegetation Association

AMG Reference

Site 1

Acacia rostellitera-Acacia heteroclita

scrub

3(75)420E/64(33)010N

Site 2

Acacia rostellHera scrub

3(75)900E/64(33)500N

Site 3

Acacia rostellitera scrub

3(76)100E/64(34)500N

Site 4

Melaleuca lanceolata forest

3(75)580E/64(36)290N

Site 5

Melaleuca lanceolata-Acada

ros tellifera - Callltris preissii

scrub

3(74)850E/64(37)810N

Site 6

Callitris preissil-Melaleuca

lanceolata

forest

3(74)750E/64(38)720N

Site 7

Callitris preissii-Melaleuca

lanceolata

forest

3(74)500E/64(39)720N

TABLE 2.— RANK ORDER OF ABUNDANCE OF 14 BIRD SPECIES ASSESSED IN FOUR
DIFFERENT WAYS DURING STUDIES ON GARDEN ISLAND, W.A. ON MARCH 18. 1979.
FOR FULL EXPLANATION, SEE TEXT.

Species

Total

Maximum

Frequency

Atlas

Silvereye .

Singing Honeyeater ....

6.5

1.5

Willie Wagtail .

3.5

Grey Butcher-bird .

3.5

Grey Fantail .

Wolcomo Swallow .

Western Warbler .

8.5

5.5

Golden Whistler .

10.5

5.5

Silver Gull .

8.5

9.5

1.5

Raven .

6.5

11.5

Laughing Dove .

10.5

9.5

Rufous Whistler .

11.5

13.5

Caspian Tern .

13.5

Common Bronzewing

13.5

RESULTS

Table 2 presents summaries of the results of this census in several
ways, expressed as rankings of the fourteen species observed in the 42
quadrats surveyed on March 18. Three rankings were made from the
quadrat data and the fourth from data independently collected.

221

Total. Shows the rank order given by rating the species from one f 0r
that seen in greatest total numbers over all 42 quadrats to 14 for that
seen in least total numbers.

Maximum. Shows the rank order given by rating the species from
one for that with the highest maximum numbers seen in 20 minutes at
a single quadrat to 14 for that seen in lowest maximum numbers in 2o
minutes at a single quadrat. This measure is recommended in Robbing
(1978) review.

Frequency. Shows the rank order given by rating the species from
one for that seen in most of the 42 quadrat observations to 14 for that
seen in least of the 42 quadrat observations. Blondel (1975) has show n
that this measure correlates with density measures of breeding birds i n
France over a substantial range of measurements.

Atlas. 15 of the participants in the study submitted observation
sheets to the Atlas of Australian Birds based on their sightings made over
the whole of Garden Island during the two days 17 and 18 March. 1979.
This ranking shows the order given by rating the species from one fo r
that recorded on most of these atlas sheets to 13.5 for that recorded on
least. Species, mainly waders and sea birds, not recorded in the quadrat
observations were omitted from the ranking in Table 1.

Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance (Siegel. 1956) for these data
was +0.806 (X- 41.94; df 13; p < 0.001) showing excellent agreement
between the rankings.

TABLE 3.—THE NUMBER OF 30 M RADIUS QUADRATS IN WHICH EACH SPECIES Was
CONTACTED AT LEAST ONCE DURING OBSERVATIONS IN 42 QUADRATS ON GARDEN
ISLAND, W.A. ON MARCH 18. 1979. NOTE THAT TWICE AS MANY MEASUREMENTS

WERE MADE IN THE

ASSOCIATIONS
THOSE LISTED

LISTED
IN THE

IN THE LAST
FIRST THREE

TWO COLUMNS AS in

No. of quadrats.

Vegetation association

Species

A. rostellifera M. lanceolata M. lanceolata
A. heteroclita forest. A. rostellifera

scrub C. preissii

scrub.

C. preissii A.
M. lanceolata
forest.

rostellifera

scrub.

Silvereye .

Willie Wagtail .

Singing Honeyeater

Grey Fantail .

Golden Whistler ....

Western Warbler ....

Grey Butcher-bird ..

Laughing Dove

Common Bronzewing

Raven .

Welcome Swallow ..

Rufous Whistler ....

Caspian Tern .

Silver Gull .

Table 3 presents the number of quadrats in which each species was
contacted at each of the seven sites during the observations of March 18.
Blondel (1975) considers this measure (which he calls frequency) correlates
well with density. Differences between the various vegetation associations
are apparent but there are insufficient data to test the significance of
these differences statistically.

222

APPENDIX 1

Species recorded on Garden Island, 17-18 March, 1979 with number of Atlas sheets on
which each was recorded. Total number of sheets: 15.

Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax varius 13
Little Pied Cormorant

P. melanoleucos . 12

Black Cormorant P. carbo . 2

Little Black Cormorant

P. sulcirostris . 3

White-faced Heron

Ardea novaehollandiae 2

Reef Heron Egretta sacra . 7

Osprey Pandion haliaetus . 10

Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides 1
Pied Oystercatcher

Haematopus ostralegus . 11

Sooty Oystercatcher H. tuliginosus 1
Banded Plover Vanellus tricolor .... 10

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola .... 11

Red-capped Dotterel

Charadrius ruficapillus . 1

Turnstone Arenaria interpres . 9

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus . 5

Grey-tailed Tattler Trlnga brevlpes .... 2

Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos .... 6

Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 12
Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris .... 9

Red-necked Stint C. ruficollis . 4

Sanderling C. alba . 4

Broad-billed Sandpiper

Llmicola falcinellus . 1

Silver Gull Larus novaehollandiae .... 15

Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia .... 11

Fairy Tern Sterna nereis . 8

Crested Tern Sterna bergii . 14

Domestic Pigeon Columba livia . 1

Laughing Dove

Streptopelia senegalensis . 11

Common Bronzewing
Phaps chalcoptera . 4

Brush Bronzewing P. elegans . 1

Red-capped Parrot

Purpureicephalus spurius . 2

Port Lincoln Parrot

Bamardius zonarius . 1

Fan-tailed Cuckoo

Cacomantis pyrrhophanus . 3

Sacred Kingfisher Halcyon sancta .... 11

Bee-eater Merops ornatus . 1

Welcome Swallow Hirundo neoxena 14
Tree Martin Petrochelidon nigricans 3

Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae . 9

Golden Whistler

Pachycephala pectoralis . 13

Rufous Whistler P. rufiventris .... 4

Grey Fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa 12

Willie Wagtail R. leucophrys . 14

Western Warbler Gerygone fusca 11

Yellow-rumped Thornbill

Acanthiza chrysorrhoa . 1

Singing Honeyeater
Meliphaga virescens . 15

White-fronted Chat

Ephthianura albifrons . 3

Silvereye Zosterops gouldi . 14

Magpie Lark Grallina cyanoleuca 1

Grey Butcherbird

Cracticus torquatus . 13

Australian Raven Corvus coronoides 13

Appendix 1 presents a list of species recorded on Garden Island dur¬
ing the study, together with an indication of the number of Atlas sheets
on which they were recorded.

DISCUSSION

The abundance of Silvereyes on the island shown by these results may
perhaps be a seasonal phenomenon, a point already made by Abbott (1979)
who presents relative abundance figures based on mist netting in early
February, 1975. The Silvereye was then less abundant than the Golden
Whistler and Singing Honeyeater. For the other species, the results give
a comparative estimate of abundance of the main species inhabiting the
island, apart from sea birds. An island such as Garden Island is particularly
well suited to census methods of this type because the very nature of the
bird fauna, depauperate with respect to the closely adjacent mainland
(Appendix 1 shows there are no wrens or robins, only one, rare, thornbill
and one honeyeater), suggests that much less movement between island and
mainland takes place than might have been expected. Probably, therefore,
many of the species found on the island are resident there. Mixed feeding
flocks of the kind found throughout Australia (Gannon. 1934; Sedgwick,
1949) were not observed and most species, other than Silvereyes, seemed
to remain within a small area. The underlying assumptions of the 1PA
method that the birds occur in a dispersed and not an aggregated pattern
are, therefore, valid in this case, and the census results may be used as
a baseline for comparison with future counts.

223

It is encouraging that the rankings of abundance derived from Atlas
data agree well with that from the census methods, for data of this kind
are now available for most of Australia.

There are. however, some special features of the Garden Island
census work that need to be considered before they can be used to advocate
widespread use of Atlas data as measures of abundance, and I am grateful
to A. M. Gilmore for pointing these out to me. First, because Garden
Island is an island the amount of emigration and immigration into the
study area is limited. Secondly, avian density is less on islands than in
continental areas and a greater intensity of sampling is needed reliably
to rank the rare species in a continental area. Thirdly, Atlas data are often
collected in a less standard way than was done during the Garden Island
excursion. Often several people contribute their sightings to one sheet
and usually sheets cover a longer time period than two days. Such varia¬
tion would lead to substantial variation in the recording of rare species,
although it should have little effect on the ‘score’ of common species.
Nevertheless, the Garden Island results seem to justify further careful
work to test the value of Atlas data in providing comparative abundance
indices at least for those species of birds common or commonly seen in
an area.

REFERENCES

ABBOTT, I. 1980. The avifauna of Garden Island, Cockburn Sound. W.A.
Nat ., 14 (7): 189-193.

BLONDEL, J. 1975. L’analyse des peupements d’oiseaux, elements d'un
diagnostic ecologique. I. La methode des echantillonnagcs frequentiels
prognasifs (E.F.P.). La Terre at la Vie, Revue d’Ecologie Appliquee,
29: 533-589.

FERRY, C. and B. FROCHOT. 1970. L’avifauna nidificatrice d’une foret
de chcnes pedoncules on bourgongne etude de deux successions ecolo-
giques. La Terre et la Vie, 24: 153-250.

GANNON, G. 1934. Associations of small insectivorous birds. Emu, 34:
122-129.

INTERNATIONAL BIRD CENSUS COMMITTEE. 1969. Recommenda¬
tions for an international standard for a mapping method in bird
census work. Bird Study , 16: 249-255.

McARTHUR, W. M. 1957. Plant ecology of the coastal islands near
Fremantle, W.A. J . Roy. Soc. IV.A., 40: 46-64.

McARTHUR, W. M. and G. A. BARTLE. 1978. Garden Island Bio¬
physical Survey. CSIRO Land Resources Management Series, No. 7.
ROBBINS, C. S. 1978. Census techniques for forest birds. In De Graaf,
R. M. (ed.). Proceedings of the workshop on management of south¬
ern forests for non-game birds. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest
Service. General Technical Reports S.E., 14: 142-163.

SEDGWICK, E. 1949. Mixed associations of small birds in the south¬
west of Western Australia. Emu, 49: 9-13.

SEIGEL, S. 1956. Non-parametric statistics for the behavioural sciences.
McGraw Hill, N.Y.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely grateful to the Commodore and staff of HMAS
Stirling for the willing help they gave to the RAOU party. I also wish
to thank those members of the party who helped with the census observa¬
tions on the morning of March 18. They were:— M. and M. Bremner,
N. Brockman, R. Denny, D. Drakes, A. and B. Fewster, B. Hale, H. Lay,
L. and R. Milhinch, M. and Y. Millard, K. Mills, E. Milne, P. and J. Muh-
lings, C. and W. Napier, E. Pole, 1. and E. Rowley, J. Seabrook, V. and J.
Smith, and A. Stout.

I am grateful to Ian Rowley and A. M. Gilmore for their comments
on a draft of this paper.

224

THE FLORA AND FAUNA OF COFFIN ISLAND
By G. T. SMITH and N. KOLICHIS
INTRODUCTION

Coffin Island (35°00’S, 118° 12*E) lies 300 m from the mainland
between Point Gardner and Cape Vancouver; 30 km east of Albany. It
is part of the Two Peoples Bay reserve, and a permit is required to land
on the island.

The first description of the island was that of Collie (1833) who
visited the island on 4 June 1831 with a party of sealers. His description
of the vegetation and animals found on the island is brief. “The surface,
a few yards removed from the cliffs is composed of a thin covering of
light loam and mould, producing the Anthociras obovata (Anthocercis
viscosa) and another shrub, with a few herbaceous plants and affording
a warren for Sooty Petrel, Penguin, lizards, etc. which have riddled the
ground with their holes.’* He further mentions that although no seals
vvere seen, the number of skeletons confirmed reports that large numbers
of seals had been killed on the island. The sealers compensated for the
lack of seals by taking 500 Great-winged Petrels in three days. Collie
referred to them as the ‘sooty petrel, procellaria fuliginosa It was Major
H. M. YVhittell who first identified Collie’s observation as pertaining to
the Great-winged Petrel (Whittell, 1946).

The present article gives the results of four trips to the island on
1 May, 1976, 4 July, 1978, 20 November, 1978 and 14 January, 1979.
An average of two hours was spent on the island on each day.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

The island (1 x 0.2-0.3 km, area 28 ha) is a flat topped ridge of
granite running NW-SE, surrounded by steeply sloping rock faces except
for a boulder beach on the north east end and a gently sloping rock
shelf on the south-east corner. The north-east end of the island is about
8 m above sea level and rises gently to the south-east reaching a height
of 45 m some 800 m from the north-west end, when it slopes downwards
again. A light sandy soil, in places with abundant humus, covers the
island and may be 60-100 cm deep in the middle of the island.

VEGETATION

The vegetation covers about half the area of the island, essentially
the flat top, extending little beyond the well-defined break in slope that
separates the granite slopes and the top of the island. It may be divided
into two formations; a dense shrub cover one to two metres high extending
to about the break in slope and a thin edge zone bordering the shrub
layer.

The shrub layer is essentially a dense tangled cover of Rhagodia
radiata about one metre high, occasionally reaching two metres in depres¬
sions. Small clumps or single plants of Anthocercis viscosa (1-3 m) are
found throughout the island, but arc most common in the south-east end
of the island and around the three outcrops on the north-east side of
the island.

The edge zone is best developed on the south-west side of the island
and is composed mainly of a number of prostrate shrubs and short
grasses and sedges. Carpobrotus virescens is the most common plant in
this zone. Where the plants of this zone encroach over the break in slope
they may on occasions be rolled back by the combined actions of the
sea and wind. The following is a list of plants recorded from the island.
Those marked with an asterisk have not been recorded from the adjacent
mainland.

Poa sp. A few small patches (5 cm high) were found on the north¬
east side of the island in May 1978 on the edge of the Rhagodia.

Stipa sp. Small tussocks 20-40 cm high in isolated clumps in the
edge zone.

225

Sporobolus virginious*. Forms small clumps in the edge zone and in
depressions on the north-west end of the island.

Scirpus nodosus R.Br. Isolated clumps in edge zone.

Stypandra grandifora* . Scattered in edge zone and forms a well
defined patch (30 m x 5 m) in the middle of the south-west side, a similar
patch occurs on the north-east side but is larger and not as well defined.

Carpobrotus virescens. Common in edge zone and at south-east end
forms a zone about 30 m wide, also scattered throughout the island where
the Rhcigodia has been killed by burrowing birds.

Lepidium foliosum* . Forms patches in depressions in the edge zone.

Oxylobium ajj. lanceolatum (Vent) Drucc. Single plants or isolated
groups around outcrops.

Pelargonium australe*. Small patches in edge zone—mainly on south¬
east side.

Lavatera plebia*. A few plants on the north-east side of the island.

Hibbertia cuneiformis. A few isolated shrubs around the outcrops.

Leucopogon revolutus. Mainly single plants, occasionally small groups
around outcrops.

Apium prostration* . A few clumps in edge zone.

Anthocercis viscosa. Distribution is noted above.

Lobelia alata. Forming mats in the more sheltered areas in the edge
zone, most common on the south-west coast.

Scaevola crassi/olia. A few small areas in the south-west edge zone.

Stylidium adnatum. Small groups in edge zone.

Rhagodia radiata. Distribution as above.

VERTEBRATES

The main purpose of visiting the island was to record the sea birds
breeding on the island. However, notes were made on all the other
vertebrates.

REPTILES

Phyllodactylus rnarmoratus, Ctenotus labillardieri, Hemiergis peronii
were uncommon and only found under rock slabs in the edge zone or
around the outcrops. Egernia kingii was abundant in the bird burrows as
well as around the rocky areas. The species here is brown rather than the
black on the mainland. All these species are common on the adjacent
mainland.

BIRDS

Little Penguin, Eudypttda minor. The calls of this species are fre¬
quently heard at dusk from the mainland during the winter. Two half-
grown young in down were recorded 20 November 1978.

Great-winged Petrel, Pterodroma macroptera. In April and May
1976 2-3,000 birds were seen flying around the island at dusk. 1 May
1976—five pairs and a single bird were found in scrapes, or in burrows
under the Rhagodia. About 50% of the burrow's showed signs of them
being used, and judging from the number of calls, many would have been
occupied. 4 July 1978—all the birds seen were on heavily incubated eggs,
the nests were in scrapes under the Rhagodia or in burrows 30-60 cm in
length. Many burrows on the lower north-w r est end of the island were
water-logged w'ith addled eggs. 20 November 1978—only one large young
was found with its belly still covered with natal down. Feather develop¬
ment on the rest of the body was normal.

Most nests were in the centre of the island, the density declining
towards the coast. The number of nests from three 100 sq.m. areas was
11, 10 and 8, although in some areas the density may be as high as
one per two square metres.

226

Fleshy-footed Shearwater, Puff inns carneipes. Two chicks, possibly
of this species were found on 1 May 1976 (Sokolowski, 1976). On 14
January 1979 six birds in burrows were found on partly incubated eggs.
All the nests were on the south-east side of the island, generally close
to the edge zone. From the number of occupied nests and the calls of
birds in the burrows there were probably less than 100 nests.

Little Shearwater, Puffirms assimilis. A freshly dead adult was found
on 20 November 1978.

White-faced Storm Petrel, Palcigo drama marina. 14 January 1979—
One pair of adult wings and a downy carcase were found of this species.
Only three empty burrows, possibly of this species, were found, all were
on the seaward side of the edge zone in the south-west corner of the island.

White-breasted Sea Eagle. Haliaeetus leucogaster. The resident pair
from the adjacent mainland often use the island as a roosting site during
the day.

Sooty Oystercatcher, Haematopus juliginosus. Birds seen on all trips,
on 20 November 1978 nine were seen, and two nests, each with two eggs,
were found adjacent to rock outcrops on the seaward side of the south¬
west edge zone.

Silver Gull, Laras novaehollandiae . Commonly seen around and roost¬
ing on the island throughout the year, numbers vary from two to 100-f.
20 November 1978—About forty birds and five nests with eggs on the
south-east corner of the north-west end. 14 January 1979—12 adults and
three fledglings were found in the nesting area.

Pacific Gull, Laras pacificns. Two adults were seen on all trips. 20
November 1978—One nest was found on the south-east end with a
partly incubated egg.

Crested Tern, Sterna bergii. Not seen on trips to island, but from
mainland often seen around and roosting on the island.

Brush Bronzewing Pigeon, Phaps elegans. Seen on all trips; maximum
number, four.

Rock Parrot, Neophema petrophila. Four to ten birds seen on all

trips.

Welcome Swallow, Hirando neoxena. Four to twenty birds seen on
all trips.

Silvereye, Zosterops gouldi. Flocks of five to twenty birds seen on all

trips.

New Holland Honeyeater, Phylidonyris novaehollandiae . Several seen
on 1 May 1976.

Red-cared Firctail, Emblema ocnlata. One seen on 1 May 1976.

MAMMALS

Abbott (1979) recorded both the Australian Sea Lion (Neophoca
cinerea) and the New Zealand Fur seal (Arctocephalns foresteri) on a
number of islands in the Albany region, but found only Fur Seals on
Coffin island. He considered Sokolowski’s (1976) identification of Sea
Lions incorrect.

We were unable to positively identify the seals during our visits.
However, the following data are suggestive of the regular presence of
Sea Lions on the island. A large pale-naped seal was present at each of
the three haul out localities in May 1976, similar observations have been
made from the mainland on a number of occasions; seals on the island
are commonly seen lying side by side, a characteristic of the Sea Lion
rather than the Fur Seal (Stirling, 1972); seal tracks were found on the
island and occasional sightings were made from the mainland of seals
moving or resting in the vegetation, again suggestive more of the Sea
Lion than the Fur Seal (Abbot, 1979).

From March to November in the period 1974-77, 54 counts of the
seals were made from the mainland. Examination of the three areas where
the seals haul out indicate that few if any, would be missed from the

227

mainland, with the exception of some that may move into the Rhagodia
or be concealed under granite slabs.

The number of seals ranged from one to 56 (av. 27), the numbers
ashore increasing from dawn to dusk. Although there is a considerable
range in the numbers found in any month, there is a peak in July and
August with the minimum numbers seen in November. No evidence of
breeding was found.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The W.A. Department of Fisheries and Wildlife kindly arranged the
transport for the May 1976 trip and provided the permits for Kolichis
to land on the island. Terry Allen provided the transport for the other
trips. R. Sokolowski kindly gave his data for the I May 1976 trip and
Dr. N. Marchant identified the plants.

REFERENCES

ABBOTT, I. 1979. The past and present distribution and status of Sea
Lions and Fur Seals in Western Australia. Rec. West. Aust. Mus.,
7: 375-390.

COLLIE, A. 1833. Account of an excursion to the north of King George’s
Sound, between 26th April and 4th May 1831. In Journals of several
expeditions made in Western Australia during the years 1829, 1830,
1831 and 1832. J. Cross. London.

SOKOLOWSKI, R. 1976. Flora and fauna survey—Coffin Island. Swans,
6 (2): 35.

STIRLING, I. 1972. Observations on the Australian Sea Lion Neophoca
cinerea (Peron.) Aust. J. Zool., 20: 271-279.

WHITTELL, H. M. 1946. An early note on Pterodroma macroptera in
Western Australia. Emu, 45 (4): 327-328.

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF TWO SPECIES
OF DIADOXUS (COLEOPTERA : BUPRESTIDAE) IN WESTERN

AUSTRALIA

By M. PETERSON* and T. J. HAWKESWOODt
ABSTRACT

The available literature on the general biology of two of the three species of the
endemic Australian genus Diadoxus is briefly summarized. Additional data are supplied
on their distribution, potential adult food plants and procrypsis based on observations
in Western Australia.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Diadoxus Thomson is a small genus of three species
endemic to Australia (Carter, 1929). Diadoxus scalaris Laporte & Gory
and Diadoxus erythrurus (White) are commonly known as the cypress pine
jewel beetles since their larvae have been found to feed in the conductive
tissues of branches and trunks of native cypress pines (Callitris spp.) and
introduced Cupressus trees (both genera belong to the Cupressaceae).
Attack by D. erythrurus on cypress pines was first recorded by Von Len-
denfeld (1885) in western New South Wales. Since then, French (1911),
Froggatt (1923, 1927), Pescott (1932), Zeck (1955) and Hadlington and
Gardner (1959) have considered the bionomics of the two species. Saunders
(1868) provided redescriptions of both buprestids. Blackburn (1899) des¬
cribed another species D. fungi from Yorke Peninsula, South Australia
(he does not give a specific locality), but nothing has been recorded of its
biology.

DISTRIBUTION

D. scalaris, the largest of the three species is known to occur in
association with D. erythrurus (Hadlington and Gardner, 1959). Froggatt
(1923) believed that D. erythrurus would be found wherever native Callitris

*69 Alvah Street, St. James. 6102.

tDepartment of Botany, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, 6009.

228

species were distributed. Hadlington and Gardner noted that the distri¬
bution of D. erythrurus in New South Wales had been extended on the
coast and highlands of N.S.W. since the introduction of Cupressus spp. to
those areas. Carter (1929) listed the distribution of both species as New
South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. However, Froggatt stated that
P. scalaris had a wide range over Australia, from Sydney (N.S.W.) to
Kalgoorlie (W.A.).

One of us (M.P.) has recently observed five specimens of D. scalaris
from near the N7T Radio Transmitter, 64 km E of Southern Cross,
Western Australia (c. 31°55’S, 120°05’E) (about 120 km W of Kalgoorlie)
during early October 1977. Specimens of D. scalaris in the Western Aus¬
tralian Museum (WAM) have been collected from Kcllerberrin (31°38'S,
117°43’E), Mcnzies (29°4TS, 121°02’E), Norseman (32°12’S, 121°46*E),
Boulder (30°47’S, 121°29’E) and from the Perth suburbs of Cannington
and Wembley. Specimens in the Western Australian Department of
Aericulture (WADA) have been collected recently from Cundeelee (c. 30°
50’S, 123°30'E).

On the 14 October 1978, a specimen of D. cry thrurus was observed
by Mr. M. Golding, after it had fallen from a pine tree (Pinus sp., Pin-
aceae), which was growing in his garden at Attadalc (Perth). A further
specimen of D. crythrurus was observed by Mr. M. Powell, 16 km W
of Wurarga (c. 28°26’S, 116°06’E) on the 28 October 1978. Specimens
of D. crythrurus in WAM have been collected from Northam (31 B 40’S,
116°40’E), Cranbrook (34°18’S, 117 0 33'E), Kings Park (Perth) and from
the Perth suburb Victoria Park. Specimens in WADA have been collected
from Dedari (31°0rS, ^O^S’E), Corrigin (32°20 , S r 117°5rE) and the
Perth suburbs of Lcsmurdie, Claremont and Cannington. The distributions
of both species arc shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.—Distribution of Diadoxus scalaris (•) and D. ery thrurus (A)
in Western Australia (based on collections in WAM, WADA and personal
observations).

The records from Perth suburbs probably represent the most westerly
distributions of Diadoxus in south-western Australia. Observations by
Messrs. Peterson, Powell and Golding have suggested that beetles are
uncommon in the areas where they were observed. Since specimens of
Diadoxus appear to be relatively uncommon in the field and there is a
paucity of material in museum collections, little is known at present
about their past or present distribution. However, it is likely that the two

229

species have a wider distribution today than in the past due to accidental
introduction of infested timber for building purposes.

HOST PLANTS

Presently, little has been published on the larval and adult food
plants of Australian Buprestidae. The larvae of jewel beetles are generally
known to feed in the stems or roots of various plants, while adults may
feed on nectar, pollen, leaves or sap from the larval food plant or from
alternative plants. There appear to be no published data on adult food
plants of Diadoxus. The only information available is on larval hosts.

(a) Larval

The larvae of Diadoxus are typical of Buprestidae larvae in being
yellow and elongate, with the thoracic segments dorso-ventrally flattened
and wider than the abdominal segments. After hatching from the eggs
(which may be laid in crevices in bark of trees or more usually in fire
scars or other wounds on trunks (Pescott, 1932), the larvae commence
feeding on the phloem adjacent to the sapwood. They etch the outer
surface of the sapwood while feeding (Hadlington and Gardner, 1959) and
the infested portion may become riddled with irregular, oval (in cross
section) galleries or channels firmly packed with faeces and chewed Wood
which is not swallowed (Anon.. 1958: Hadlington and Gardner. 1959).
When fully grown, the larvae (about 2.5 cm in length at this stage) cut
narrow oval burrows into the sapwood and pupate in these chambers
(Anon., 1958). The main larval host plants are Callitris huegelii (Carr.)
Franco and C. endlicheri (Pari.) F. H. Bail. (Hadlington and Gardner,
1959). French (1911) and Prescott (1932) have recorded the introduced
tree Cupressus macrocarpa var. lamhcrtiana Gordon, as a host of D .
erythrurus, in the Melbourne area, Victoria. French (1911) believed that
Acacia aneura F. Muell. (Mimosaceae) was a host plant since he collected
specimens of D. erythrurus from an area where no species of Callitris or
Cupressus occurred.

(b) Adult

M. Peterson observed adults of D. scalaris on the leaves of non-
flowering Casuarina campestris Diels (Casuarinaceae) and flowering Gre-
villea eriostachya Lind I. (Proteaceae), east of Southern Cross during late
1977. Trees of an unknown species of Callitris were common in the area
but no adults were observed on these plants. It is possible that the species
breeds in Callitris but adults emerge to feed on alternative plants such as
Grevillea eriostachya.

Near Wurarga D , erythrurus was observed on Callitris verrucosa (A.
Cunn. ex Endl.) F. Muell.’, and at Attadale was collected from an unknown
species of Pinus. Although feeding by the jewel beetle on C. verrucosa
was not observed it is probable that it utilizes this plant for food in the
adult stage. The collection of D. erythrurus from Attadale possibly indi¬
cates that the species has been either introduced in pine timber (since
native Callitris pines are rare in the Perth area) or breeds in native Casu¬
arina. The species has probably established itself in species of Pinus or
Casuarina in some suburbs of the metropolitan area e.g. Victoria Park,
Attadale, Cannington and Claremont.

OBSERVATIONS ON PROCRYPSIS

Procrypsis refers to the concealment of an insect (or other animal)
by the use of coloration, morphology or behaviour (all or a combination
of these) in order to escape the attention of a predator. Procrypsis is dis¬
tinct from anticrypsis where the concealing coloration and behaviour
enables predators to approach their prey, or on the other hand, allows the
predator to remain concealed while the prey approaches unsuspecting.

The following observations on procrypsis displayed by D. scalaris on
Casuarina campestris were made by one of us (M.P.) east of Southern
Cross during October 1977. Observations were undertaken between 1100
and 1430 hrs. (W.S.T.). Beetles were particularly adept and agile and
remained well hidden amongst foliage where they moved quickly from

230

branchlet to branchlet usually remaining vertically orientated. They
betrayed their presence only by producing a short buzzing sound with the
vvings and elytra immediately before taking flight. Flight was observed
[o be fast, straight and directed horizontally outwards from the Casuarina
bushes.

The adult of D. scalaris is a slender, almost cylindrical beetle measur¬
ing about 2.5 cm in length. The ground colour of the pronotum and elytra
is light reddish-brown. The pronotum is short and broad and has yellow
longitudinal stripes in the centre and near the lateral margins. The elytra
have an elongate oval blotch on the basal region and three smaller, yellow
spots down the centre of each elytron. The adult of the smaller species,
p. erythrurus, is similar in morphology and colour to D. scalaris. It
measures about 2 cm long and is brown or black with green or yellow
markings on the upper surface. The undersurface is green, red-brown
a nd yellow. The green coloration fades to a dull yellow after death.

Fig. 2.— Diadoxus scalaris in a vertical resting position on Casuarina cam-
pest ris. Photograph by M. Peterson).

The vivid coloration of the underside of the live beetle appears to
match the green of the Casuarina branchlets. The nodal region of the
branchlets is a straw-yellow colour. The disruptive markings of the lateral
margins of the apical sternites on the undersurface of D. scalaris appear
to match the yellow coloration of the nodal region of the branchlets upon
which beetles rest. Figure 2 shows an individual of D. scalaris resting
vertically amongst branchlets of Casuarina campestris. The black and
white reproduction docs not illustrate the crvpsis as well as the colour
transparency from which it was taken but docs give some indication of
the resting posture of the insect and the disruptive patterning of its under¬
surface. Figure 3 shows D. erythrurus on Callitris verrucosa 7 The green of
the beetle’s undersurface matches the coloration of the pine leaves.
However, the apparent crypsis is not as pronounced as with D. scalaris on
Casuarina, since yellow is absent from the Callitris leaves.

Although more observations are needed, especially on predator/prey
relationships, it appears likely from the present observations, that Diadoxus
species are afforded protection from predation by adopting a vertical

231

resting position in the central region of Callitris trees and Casuarina
bushes. It is probable that Casnari/ui plants afford more protection since
the alternation of yellow and green on the branch lets better fits the
undersurface pattern of Diadoxus. In this way, the habit of beetles frequent¬
ing Casuaria may result in a lower incidence of predation on buprestid

Fig. 3.— Diadoxus erythrurus on leaves of Callitris verrucosa. (Photograph

by D. Knowles).

populations in areas where pines and Casuarina occur sympatricaHy n
comparison to that in areas where only Callitris occur ™ e . „’u rl '
predators of Diadoxus are birds such as magpies and butcherbirds We
find these observations of interest since such marked procrypsis like this
example does not appear to occur in many other Australian buprestid
beetles (Hawkeswood, Peterson and Knowles, unpublished data).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

We would like to conclude this paper by stating that little has been
published on the general biology of the Australian Buprestidae This is
surprising since jewel beetles occupy diverse habitats throig , . *

Many species are abundant on native flowers and leaves of plants during
spring and summer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Mr. J. D. O’Dca, Department of Physiology,
University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. and Mr. G. Harold (Perth,
W.A.) for reading the manuscript and providing constructive comments.
We would also like to thank Mr. D. G. Knowles for providing the photo¬
graph of D. erythrurus, and to Messrs. M. Powell and • p.S .
some of the field data and other information given in th's paper Finally
we express our thanks to Dr. L. E. Koch (former Curator of EntomoJogy)
and Dr. T. F. Houston (present Curator of Entomology). Western Aus¬
tralian Museum, and Mr. K. T. Richards, Dept, of Agricu ur, er .
for allowing access to the collections of Buprestidac in their care.

REFERENCES

ANON. 1958. Tree Borers. Hgr. Caz. N.S.W., 69: 252-258.
BLACKBURN, T. 1899. Further notes on Australian Coleoptera witn

232

descriptions of new genera and species. XXV. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
A list., 23: 22-101.

CARTER, H. J. 1929. A check list of the Australian Buprestidae. Aust.
Zool., 5: 265-304.

FRENCH, C. 1911. Handbook of destructive insects of Victoria. Govt.
Printer, Melbourne.

FROGGATT, W. W. 1923. Forest insects of Australia. Govt. Printer,
Sydney.

FROGGATT, W. W. 1927. Forest insects and timber borers. Govt. Printer,
Sydney.

HADLINGTON, P. and M. J. GARDNER. 1959. Diadoxus erythrurus
(White) (Coleoptera-Buprcstidae), attack of fire-damaged Callitris spp.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. , 84: 325-332, plate XVI.

PESCOTT, R. T. M. 1932. The cypress pine girdler. J. Dept. Agr. (Vic.),
30: 396-397.

SAUNDERS, E. 1868. A revision of the Australian Buprestidae described
by the Rev. F. W. Hope. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1: 1-67, plates 1-4.
VON LENDENFELD, BARON. 1885. Recent changes in the forest flora
of the interior of New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 10:
721-722.

ZECK, E. H. 1955. Cypress pine buprestid beetles. Agr. Gaz. N.S.IV.,
66: 296.

AN EARLY PLEISTOCENE MACROPOD FROM JANDAKOT,
WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By JANE BALME, Western Australian Museum, Francis Street,

Perth, 6000.

Two tooth fragments which, when fitted together formed a complete
premolar tooth (Western Australian Museum catalogue number 79.2.13),
were found by V. A. Ryland, Department of Palaeontology, Western
Australian Museum (W.A.M.), in material recovered from Pauiik’s bore,
Jandakot. One fragment of the tooth was found in a sediment sample
from 25.0 m below the top of the bore and the other from the next
sample up the bore at 24.7 m. The two pieces were fitted together and
registered as from 24.7 m, being the first occurrence of the specimen
during drilling. This position lay 3.2 m below Australian Height Datum
(m.s.I.).

1mm

A B

Fig. 1. — Premolar tooth from Paulik’s bore, Jandakot, Western Australia.
A. lingual view. B. buccal view.

Paulik’s bore is situated at the eastern end of lot 41, Semple Road,
Jandakot (latitude 32°6’47” S, longitude 115°50’39” E), which is on the
Swan Coastal Plain about 20 km south of Perth. The bore was drilled

233

with sludge pump and percussion drill during 1968 by Mr. J. G. Hastings.
Mr. G. W. Kendrick from the Department of Palaeontology (W.A.M.)
attended the site when the bore was drilled to collect and record depth
data.

The sequence in Paulik's bore, from the top down, consisted of the
following units.

surface—22 m: Grey to brown nonfossiliferous quartz sand identified
as Bassendean Sand (Playford and Low, 1972).

22 m — c.22.5 m: Brown silt with some dark grey carbonaceous sand.
This transitional sand silt sequence contained carbon and other plant
remains, fragmentary bone and shells of freshwater snails. The unit is
interpreted as deposition in and near fresh water swamp.

c.22.5 m—42.7 m: Richly fossiliferous, grey, quartz arenite with some
siltstone, calcrete, algal and other limestone. This sequence is mostly
marine but contains several thin nonmarine units.

Major unconformity.

42.7 m: Black shale of the Cretaceous Osborne formation.

A marked concentration of bone fragments occurred in the bore
sediments from 22.4 to 26.5 m below surface. The uppermost bone found
was at the contact of the silty transitional unit and the marine beds
(22.4 m). Most of the bone was excavated from below this contact but
material can work itself down the steel casing and the recovery depths
may be greater than the original position of the material before drilling.

Both of the premolar fragments were found in the uppermost marine
bed which is characterised by medium grained, grey, quartzosc carbonate
sand. On the basis of the molluscs present in the marine sequence, G.
W. Kendrick considers that the sediments probably correlate with the
Wcrrikooian stage of south-east Australia (Singleton, McDougall and
Mallet, 1976) and are likely to be early Pleistocene. The Bassendean Sand,
which overlies the bone fragments, is middle Pleistocene (Playford, Cock-
bain and Low, 1976). Thus on present evidence the tooth can be con¬
sidered as early Pleistocene or perhaps a little younger.

The premolar is macropodid in form—its maximum length is 4.5 mm
and it is 2.1 mm at its widest point. It has been compared to all macropods
from the modern and fossil collections of the Western Australian Museum
without a successful match. Dr. M. Archer of the Department of Zoology,
University of New South Wales has compared it with specimens from
his extensive collection of Tertiary and Quaternary Australian and Papuan
extinct species, and modern New Guinean taxa, without success.

The tooth, however, is very similar in form to a late Pleistocene
permanent premolar of a Potorous sp. collected from Nannup Cave, south¬
western Australia (W.A.M. No. 69.3.373). The major difference between
the two teeth is size, the Jandakot tooth being considerably smaller than
the Nannup Cave tooth (maximum length = 4.5 mm, maximum width =
2.1 mm). Until more material from the Jandakot animal is found, assigning
the tooth to species is premature.

This tooth represents the oldest known mammal so far recorded from
Western Australia and its discovery is an illustration of the potential of
bore sediments if they arc meticulously examined.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank G. W. Kendrick for drawing my attention to
the bone fragments, for information about the sequence at Paulik’s bore
and for reading and commenting on a draft of this paper. M. Hern drew
the figure.

REFERENCES

PLAYFORD, P. E., A. E. COCKBAIN, and G. E. LOW. 1976. Geology

of the Perth Basin in Western Australia, Geological Survey of Western

Australia, Bulletin 24.

234

PLAYFORD, P. E. and G. H. LOW. 1972. Definitions of some new and
revised rock units in the Perth Basin. Western Australian Geological
Survey Annual Report 1971 , pp. 44-46.

SINGLETON, O. P., I. McDOUGALL and C. W. MALLETT. 1976.
The Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in Southeastern Australia, Journal
of the Geological Society of Australia, 23: 299-311.

THE POTOROO TRUFFLE (POTOROMYCES LOCULATUS)

By ROGER N. HILTON,

Botany Department, University of Western Australia

The fungus-feeding habit of small and not-so-small mammals has
long fascinated naturalists. Only recently and on the local scene has the
ecological significance of this habit been worked out, for the Tammar and
the vBettong, by Dr. Per Christiansen. (See Forests Department Bulletin
No. 89, in press). There have been parallel discoveries in North America
by Dr. Jim Trappe. The arts of the human truffle hunter, often aided
by dog or pig, have been described many times.

That these fungi have a significance for animals quite apart from
man has long been indicated by the name Hart or Stag Truffle, in Latin
Elaphomyccs cervinus (in Latin deer is cervinus, in Greek elaphos). An
excellent illustration of this fungus is Figure 119 in Gaumann and Dodge’s
Comparative Morphology of the Fungi (1928). A later version of this book,
published in 1952, says, The similarity in appearance of the fructifications
of Elaphomyccs cervinus to those of the true truffles, except in size, is
the basis of their common name, stag truffle’. But nearer the truth are
the words of the old pharmacopoeia quoted (coyly, in Latin) by Rams-
bottom on page 272 of his Mushrooms and Toadstools: Fungus cervinus
‘Tuhera cervina * and similar names so-called because they are found in
places where the deer exercise their libido. The deer eat the truffles and
so, by inexorable Mediaeval logic, they must be of use to man in the
exercise of his libido.

Ferdinand von Mueller was aware of this connection with animals
when he roamed the Western Australian forests a century ago, and when
he was presented with the fragments of an underground fungus with a
strong aromatic/garlic odour, recognised it for what it was: an Australian
equivalent of the Stag Truffle. He sent some with a covering letter to
his correspondent Mordccai Cubbit Cooke. Cooke was a man who could
turn into exquisite paintings the terse Latin descriptions of fungi that he
had not even seen and who wrote the first and only fungus flora of a
continent he had not even visited—Australia. The letter lies with the
specimens in the herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and
is reproduced here exactly as it was written in von Mueller’s only slightly
imperfect English.

19/9/1881

May I draw your particular attention to the enclosed fung, dear Dr Cooke,
which seems to me to constitute a new genus, nearest to Elaphomyces. I have divided
the few soecimens so as to supply you. the Rev. M. J. Berkeley & the Rev. C. Kalch-

brenner. The loculation, by which the peripheric sporiferous space is interrupted,

seems remarkable, so the large solid central mass which is granular under the
microscope. The closely packed spreading MILLIONS of threads, far more delicate
than those of the finest spider-webs, are—as you will notice—beset with egg shaped
spores in uncountable vastness of number.

The name is derived from Potorous. that given by Desmarest to the Kangaroo
Rats (from the aboriginal appellation "Potoroo"). these animals feasting on this fung,
scraping it up from its concealment 3 or 4 inches underground. It came from a
place near the coast between Point d’Entrecasteaux & Point Nuyts, and was sent
me by Mr, Th. Muir, who like all other correspondents of mine I had repeatedly
asked to secure any fungs ho might meet with.

As Elaphomyces indicates a sort of truffle, of which the stags are fond, I
hope you will think the allusion I made a happy one.

Of course, I may bo quite wrong in this; for I never had time to study

fungs methodically, my energies having . . .

The next page of the letter is missing, and could not be found even

235

after a search in the Archives. But the specimens are annotated in von
Mueller’s hand as

Potoromyces loculatus, near the entrance of the Gordon River. West. Aust. 1881
Th. Muir.

It is the Gardner River that has its entrance from the sea between
Pt. Entrecasteaux and Pt. Nuyts, but it is likely that the specimen did
come from the inland Gordon River, which is near to the areas where
Thomas Muir collected and farmed.

So we now know that von Mueller was NOT “wrong in this” and his
allusion is entirely a happy one. It is rather sad that the rules of botanical
nomenclature prevent his name being valid and the current name of the
Potoroo Truffle is Mesophellia gkutcci (Cooke & Masscc) Reid as published
by Dr. D. A. Reid in the Kew Bulletin, volume 17, page 306, 1963.

FROM FIELD AND STUDY

A spider feeding on a jewel beetle.—On October 21, 1979, in the
company of Mr. S. Wilson, the author was observing insects feeding on
Chamelaucium uncinatum, some 20 km N of Gingin (31°04’S, 115°47’E).
We noticed a moderately sized brown spider feeding on a jewel beetle,
Stigmodera (Castiarina) picta Laporte and Gory, which it had wrapped in
silk. The spider was busily feeding on the tissues between the thorax and
abdomen. The spider was collected and later identified by Dr. B. Y. Main
as an immature female of an Aranens species (Araneidae), possibly A.
heroine. Little is known about the predators of jewel beetles (Buprcstidae).
Barker and Inns (West, Aust. Nat., 13, 1976: 147-148) have recorded an
asilid fly as a predator of a large jewel beetle in Western Australia. Al¬
though it could be assumed that spiders feed on buprestids, there have
been no previously published reports verifying this assumption.

—T. J. HAWKESWOOD, Subiaco.

Musk Lorikeets at Troy Park, Swan River—On April 1, 1979, at
Troy Park in Alfred Cove I heard an unfamiliar parrot call and looked
around for its source in the eucalypts bordering the road. I soon found
a group of 8 Twenty-eight Parrots (Barnardius zonarius) c. 8 metres from
the ground and below them at c. 3 metres two greenish lorikeets with red
foreheads, lores and stripe from behind the eye to side of neck.

The latter birds were quite clearly not Purple-crowned Lorikeets
(Glossopsitta porphyrocephala) with which I am familiar but appeared to
be Musk Lorikeets (Glossopsitta concinna).

After I had watched them for about 5 minutes they flew down to
and entered a hollowed-out branch in the cucalypt, the hollow being c.
10 cm in diameter.

I again saw them entering and leaving the hollow on April 7 and
heard in the hollow what sounded like them on April 8th.

B. Corfe (West. Aust. Nat., 13; 1977: 209) found Musk Lorikeets
breeding at Alfred Cove in a Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus rudis) in late 1975,
so I presume that these are the same birds or direct descendants of them.

—PHILIP GRIFFIN, Western Australian Museum.

Record of (he arachnid order Schizomida in Western Australia.—
The small, moisture-loving order of arachnids, Schizomida or “micro-whip
scorpions” have a scattered distribution in South and Central America,
Africa and oriental regions. Occurrence of the group in Australia has long
been known but the specimens collected have not to date been described
(Main, 1979). Dr. T. E. Woodward collected specimens in rainforest near
Brisbane many years ago (pers. comm. 1965). Dr. J. A. L. Watson more
recently has collected specimens in the vicinity of Darwin (pers. comm.).

236

This note is to put on record the collection of a single specimen of
the order from Spiral Cave on North West Cape. The specimen was col¬
lected by P. Cawthorn in 1962 who, at the same time, collected a tro-
globitic clubionid spider. Subterranean fauna of caves and wells of this
region have already been documented by Holthuis (1960), Mees (1962),
and Cawthorn (1963).

The occurrence of a schizomid in this region is of special zoogeo¬
graphic significance. Presumably it entered Australia from the north some
time in the early Tertiary when it would have been much more widespread
during a wetter more favourable climate. The group is apparently still
common in rainforest litter in the Northern Territory. The W.A. occur¬
rence represents a relic population. However the group could be expected
to persist in favourable habitats in the Kimberlcys and it is suggested
that entomologists favoured with the opportunity to visit this region, might
profitably search for specimens when collecting in moist litter and humus.
In the meantime, Dr. I. D. Naumann and Dr. J. A. L. Watson (C.S.l.R.O.
Division of Entomology) plan to describe the available specimens.

REFERENCES

CAWTHORN, P. 1963. Discovery of subterranean freshwater fauna on
the eastern side of North West Cape. West. Aust. Nat., 8(6): 129-132.

HOLTHUIS, L. B. 1960. Two new species of Atyid shrimps from subter¬
ranean waters in N.W. Australia (Decapoda Natantia). Crustaceana,
1: 47-57.

MAIN, B. Y. (in press). A comparative account of the biogcography of ter¬
restrial invertebrates in Australia: some generalisations. Biogeography
and Ecology in Australia, ed. A. Keast (W. Junk, Netherlands).

MEES, G. F. 1962. The subterranean fauna of Yardie Creek station, North
West Cape, Western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. West. Aust., 45 (1): 24-32.

—BARBARA YORK MAIN,
Department of Zoology, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, 6009.

The Red-necked Phalarope—new migrant for the south-west of Wes¬
tern Australia.—The Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) is a
pelagic species breeding chiefly in sub-arctic regions and wintering in
tropical seas off the coast of Peru, the south-west Pacific and the seas
off Arabia, Wynne Edwards (1966), White (1975) and Schodde et al. (1975)
suggest that some birds may winter in the seas to the north-west of Aus¬
tralia.

The species was not recorded in Australia until 1962 and since then
only a small number of sightings have been made in Victoria and South
Australia (see Cox, 1973; McNamara, 1976, for references). There have
been no published sightings from Western Australia.

Our sighting was of two birds in winter plumage on the north-west
corner of Government House Lake on Rottncst Island. The birds were
first sighted on 4 February, 1980 when they were feeding with about 200
Banded Stilts (Cladorhynchus leucocephalus). They were present each day
in the same area until 8 February 1980, when they were not observed
and searches of the adjacent lakes were unsuccessful. Sightings were from
early morning to late afternoon; on all occasions they were feeding on
the water with their characteristic circling movements.

Our identification was confirmed by Dr. John Raines, a member of
the Rarities Committee of British birds, who also took a number of photo¬
graphs.

REFERENCES

COX, J. B. 1973. A further occurrence of the Red-necked Phalarope in
South Australia. S. Aust. Orn., 26; 116-117.

McNAMARA, J. A. 1976. Two further records of the Red-necked Phal¬
arope. S. Aust. Orn., 27: 142.

237

SCHODDE, R., G. F. van TETS, C. R. CHAMPION and G. S. HOPE.
1975. Observations on birds at glacial altitudes on the Carstensz
massif, Western New Guinea. Emu, 75: 65-72.

WHITE, C. M. N. 1975. Migration of Palaearctic waders in Wallacea.
Emu, 75: 37-39.

WYNNE-EDWARDS, V. 1966. Phalaropes: in A new dictionary of birds,
ed. A. Landsborough Thomson. Nelson. London.

—G. T. SMITH and D. A. SAUNDERS.

A Note on the Diet of the Cape Barren Goose.—Although nowhere
abundant the Cape Barren Goose (Cereopsis novaehollandiae) has a wide
natural distribution including islands off the southern coast of Australia
from the Furneaux Group in Bass Strait to the Recherche Archipelago,
Western Australia.

Dr. H. J. Frith in Waterfowl in Australia records that the Cape Bar¬
ren Goose feeds by grazing on vegetable matter predominantly grasses
(Poa poaformis, Lolium perenne, Avena sp., Stipa sp., Danthonia sp. and
Hordeum sp.) and some dicotyledonous leaves and seeds of clovers, medics,
herbs and succulents. Frith states that the only information on the food
actually eaten comes from 44 stomachs, collected during a short shooting
season on islands of the Furneaux Group in April 1965. Grasses made Up
65 per cent of the total bulk food and 20 per cent of the stomachs sampled
contained some sedge (Juncus sp.).

During a survey of offshore islands in the Recherche Archipelago in
January 1975 several small groups of Cape Barren Geese were seen on
Cull and Figure of Eight Islands near Espcrance. The birds were very
wary and it was not possible to observe them feeding and thereby identify
food plants. It was possible hovvever to collect small samples of geese
faeces from a bare rock surface on Figure of Eight Island, a small low
island of approximately 283 hectares well vegetated with low shrubs.

As these faeces appeared to contain viable plant seeds they were
brought to Canberra and several seedlings, all similar in appearance, were
raised. Recognising that the plants could be frost tender one was taken to
Sydney and planted in a coastal garden. This proved to be a wise pre¬
caution as although the plants in Canberra survived the first winter they
were killed in 1977. The plant in Sydney flowered in October 1978 and
was identified as Myoporum insulare (syn. M. adscendens).

The writer had collected this species on Figure of Eight Island occu-
ring just above high water level on a sheltered beach in a small cove. It
was fruiting heavily at the time, bearing small green fleshy fruit which
were apparently palatable to the geese. M. insulare is common in coastal
areas in Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and New
South Wales.

Myoporum is regarded horticulturally as difficult to raise from seed.
Whilst the small number of seeds contained in the goose faeces did not
allow any firm conclusions to be drawn the fact that they germinated at
all is interesting and suggests that studies on the effect of the digestive
system of the Cape Barren Goose on seed viability might be worthwhile.

Finally the experimental observation reported here is of botanical and
zoological interest as it suggests that Cape Barren Geese could be effective
seed dispersal agents for at least one species of Myoporum and also iden¬
tifies one component of the natural diet of Cereopsis novaehollandiae.

—R. W. BODEN, National Botanic Gardens, Canberra, A.C.T.

Jewel beetles as pollinators of Melaleuca pauperiflora F. Muell
between Eucla (W.A.) and Koonalda (S.A.).—On March 5, 1979, I exam¬
ined large numbers of the jewel beetle, Stigmodera (Themognatha) heros
Gehin (Buprestidae) feeding on nectar and pollen from flowering bushes
(1.5-2.5'm high) of a short-leaved (almost terete) species of Melaleuca

238

(Myrtaceae). Observations were undertaken between Koonalda, S.A. (31°
28 S, 129°57 E) and Eucla, W.A. (31°43’S, 128°53’E) with the majority of
observations made east of Eucla near the W.A.-S.A. border, during 1250
to 1420 hrs (WST). Air temperatures varied between 32°C and 34°C.

Examination of specimens of Melaleuca lanceolate Otto and M.
pauperiflora F. Muell. housed in the W.A. Herbarium (PERTH), revealed
that the Melaleuca specimens collected by the author near Eucla, were
intermediate between the two species; they resembled M. pauperiflora in
leaf morphology but were akin to M. lanceolata in the inflorescence.

M. pauperiflora occurs in the southern regions of S.A. and W.A.
while M. lanceolata is a widespread species occurring mostly in coastal
areas from S.E. Queensland, N.S.W. to Victoria, S.A. and W.A. In their
review of the genus Melaleuca in South Australia, Carrick and Chorney
(J • Adel. Hot. Card., 1, 1979: 281-319), mention that M. lanceolata exhibits
marked variation in the leaves and fruits, especially in size (p. 297). The
leaves often show a tendency to become thicker and somewhat terete;
Carrick and Chorney (loc. cit.) state that this variation may be due to
hybridization with M. pauperiflora or adaptation to an arid habitat.

Specimens of the Melaleuca collected from Eucla have been deposited
in the W.A. Herbarium (Hawkeswood 185) and the name M. pauperiflora
will be used for purposes of this note.

Although flowering of M. pauperiflora was sporadic between Koon¬
alda and Eucla, those bushes in flower were at their peak flowering stage.
M. pauperiflora was clearly the dominant species in the area and the only
one in flower.

Jewel beetles were not found on every flowering bush examined.
Large plants (c. 2.5 m high) in full bloom appeared to be favoured by
the buprestids. Feeding and copulation readily occurred on flowers at the
tops of plants. Flight readily occurred and beetles were observed to land
on nearby bushes after taking flight, as a result of the author’s disturb¬
ances. Although most beetles had a dusting of pollen on the head and
pronotum, no pollen was carried on the posterior regions of the body.
No other insects apart from a few individuals of another jewel beetle,
Stigmodera (Castiarina) mustelamajor Thomson were visiting the flowers.

In the absence of other insects on the flowers, it appears likely that
jewel beetles are the pollinators of this plant in the Eucla-Koonalda region.
Melaleuca flowers are, in general, not adapted for bird or mammal pol¬
lination. The flowers of M. pauperiflora possess the syndrome of can-
tharophily (beetle pollination). The flowers are cream in colour with a
strong honey-like odour and the anthers and stigmas are exposed.

Jewel beetles probably play important roles in pollination of native
plants (mostly small-flowered Myrtaceae) in the arid and semi-arid areas
of Australia. It is in these areas that many Buprestidae appear better
adapted to the harsh climatic conditions experienced during summer than
many other insect groups containing diurnal nectar/pollen feeders. This
has resulted in them occupying a dominant position in the feeding niche
on flowers of the Myrtaceae (e.g. Eucalyptus, Melaleuca and Thryptomene)
growing in the arid and semi-arid areas of Australia (Hawkeswood and
Peterson, unpublished data). In the wet, montane and coastal areas of
Australia, this feeding niche is shared more evenly with other insects
such as tachinid flies (Tachinidae), clerid beetles (Cleridae), flower chafers
(Scarabacidae), click beetles (Elateridae), butterflies (e.g. Papilionidae and
Lycaenidae) and native honey-bees (Apidae) (Hawkeswood, A list. Zool.,
19, 1978: 257-275; Hawkeswood, 1975-1979, pers. obs.).

These observations are provided since little has been published on
insect pollination of Myrtaceae.

I would like to thank Dr. N. G. Marchant, (W.A. Herbarium,
Perth) for reading and commenting on the manuscript.

—T. J. HAWKESWOOD. Department of Botany,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands.

239

An observation of predatory behaviour by a pygopodid lizard on a
scorpion.— On November 20, 1979 I collected a 30 cm Black-headed Scale
footed Lizard, Pygopus nigreps, 30 miles west of Sandstone. It was at
9 p.m. when I caught it on the open ground and the temperature Was
30°C. I kept it in a vivarium to study its feeding habits, supplying it
with a variety of other animals, including grasshoppers, moths of a range
of sizes, maggots, some very small lizards, Leristu elegans, and a large
8 cm scorpion, Urodacus novaehollandiac (from Wanneroo).

One evening after the animals had been together for several days
I noticed the scorpion appeared to have hold of the Pygopus near the snout.
I quickly separated them for fear of the lizards life. To my surprise the
Pygopus almost immediately started scenting around in an endeavour to
locate the scorpion again. When it had found it the lizard approached
slowly to within 2-3 cm and then struck forward, grabbing it at a most
effective spot, i.e. on one of the pedipalps, near the head. It immediately
started whirling the scorpion around by rotating crocodile-like around
its own axis, two or three times. This was repeated after short intervals.
To test their reactions I separated the two animals five times and on each
occasion the Pygopus wasted no time looking for the scorpion again.
A dim light and' numerous photo-flashes could not deter the Pygopus from
its predatory intentions. After about 10 minutes the scorpion was com¬
pletely motionless. Its body fluids were extruding from its abdomen and
the Pygopus seemed to be licking them up. Eventually the Pygopus dragged
the scorpion under a log.

Next morning the remains of the scorpion were found in two parts
the tail with the sting, and the carapace with part of the empty abdomen
and some of the limbs. So only the chitinous parts of its body remained.

The diligent and effective way the Pygopus handled the scorpion,
finding it again when lost (through my action) and finally killing it,
appeared to be a fixed behavioural pattern rather than an isolated incident.
Scorpions inhabit the same sandplain environment as the Pygopus and, as
both are nocturnal, scorpions may well provide a food and fluid supply
for the lizard.

Dr. L. E. Koch, of the W.A. Museum, reports a contrary instance
of a scorpion-lizard combat (Rec. W.A. Mus., 5 (2), 1977: 291). He quotes
Mr. A. M. Douglas observing a Urodacus hartmeyeri dragging a lizard,
Tympanocryptis parviceps, in sandhills at Point Cloates.

_G. A. PHILIPP, City Beach.

Additions to the Herpetofauna of (be Shark Bay Region, Western
Australia. —Since we published our paper on the frogs and reptiles of
Shark Bay (Rec. West. Aust. Mus.. 6, 1978: 449-467) another four species
of reptiles have been collected in the region.

On 24 July 1979 G. Harold and D. Knowles collected a legless lizard
Delma australis Kluge at 42 km NE of Tamala. At the same locality they
obtained a Lerista petersoni Storr; previously this rare skink was only
known from Yinnietharra, 330 km to the north-east. On the same clay they
collected a blind snake Typhlina australis (Gray) at 1 km S ot lamala.
Their field trip was supported by a generous grant from Mr. and Mrs.
W. H. Butler to the Western Australian Museum.

On 29 August 1979 T. M. S. Hanlon and G. Harold collected a
legless lizard Aclys concinna Kluge at 2 km NE of Tamala; this represents
a northward extension of known range of 400 km.

Two fossorial reptiles (the Lerista and Typhlina) have thus been
added to a herpetofauna that was already remarkable for its wealth of
fossorial species. The Shark Bay list now stands at 13 families, 44 genera
and 101 forms (96 species, five of which are represented by two subspecies).

— G. M. STORR and G. HAROLD, W.A. Museum, Perth.

240

A note on artificial nesting sites.—A method of providing nesting
sites for the European Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius). Common
Tern (Sterna hirundo) and Common Gull (Lams canus) is described in
Deutschen Bund flier Vogelschutz, vol 70: 17-19.

1 decided to apply this idea under local conditions in a much smaller
way on a dam situation 160 km south of Perth.

There is very little cover around the dam edges. Only a few clumps
of Juncus and a patch of Typha, not more than 3x6 metres, are present.

A raft was constructed out of an old pinewood pallet. To increase
buoyancy a number of plastic bottles were fastened underneath. The raft
is only 1 so. m. It was launched and anchored well offshore. To improve
its appearance Typha was woven into the pallet strips. However, it soon
weathered away but darkened and stained the wood sufficiently.

During the ensuing months the raft was frequently used as a loafing
area by Black Ducks as well as Little Pied Cormorants.

In spring 1978 two Little Grebes appeared, stayed at the dam, but
nested, however, in the nearby Typha and successfully reared one young.

Grass and some sedges began to grow on the artificial island, and
again in spring 1979 the Little Grebes appeared.

On September 7, 1979, the birds were observed copulating on the raft,
and tended to drive Black Ducks away from it. Eventually a fair mound
of mud and vegetable matter was gathered to form a nest of about 30 cm
in diameter about 8 cm high, with a depression in the middle. The nest
contained three eggs on October 20. A bird was still brooding on October
28. Another visit to the dam on November 10 showed the two parent
birds plus three very small chicks, sometimes hitching a ride on the
mother s back. But they appeared to be able already to dive for a few
seconds at a time. On the next visit, November 14 and 18 a reduction
in numbers was evident. Only two juveniles could be observed. During the
following two weeks another juvenile disappeared. On December 2 the
only remaining young was almost the size of its parents, but paler in colour,
mainly greyish on the body and having a very pronounced striped head.

Other attempts at providing nesting platforms for raptores and nesting
cavities or boxes for birds being liable to breed in hollows have proved
so far a failure.

—OTTO MUELLER, 7 Hamer Avenue, Wembley Downs.

Notes on the Breeding of Sacred Kingfishers.—On November 8, 1979
during a wind storm at Seabrook 6 km south-east of Northam a small
limb was broken off a York Gum, Eucalyptus loxophleba, leaving a
hole in the trunk. The tree is only 21 m from my house and during the
next few days a pair of Sacred kingfishers (Halcyon sancla), were seen
around the tree. On 13th and 14th they were flying in and out of the
hole and courtship feeding had started. Copulation was observed on the
17th and also on the 19th and courtship feeding, mainly with grasshoppers
and small skinks, continued. Th efemale seemed to remain quietly perched
in the tree waiting for food to be brought to her. Incubation commenced
on either the 26th or 27th with 4 eggs having been laid. The hole in the
tree trunk is 5 cm in diameter and 2.74 m from the ground, with the centre
of the nest chamber 13 cm in from the outer opening and 5 cm below
the opening. Both male and female birds took turns at incubating the
eggs. On December 14 the eggs had hatched so the incubation time would
be 16 or possibly 17 days. Both parents fed the young in the nest with
mainly small skinks, grasshoppers, what appeared to be spiders and on
one occasion a centipede about 10 cm long. On December 28, while
watching through binoculars, I was interested to sec one of the adults
bring in a small snake approximately 35 cm long. After placing it at the
edge of the hole with most of it hanging down outside, the bird flew off
and the snake was drawn into the nest apparently by one of the young.
The first three fledglings left the nest on January 9, 1980 but the fourth

241

remained in the nest until the following morning; so the nestling period
was 27 days. They stayed in the area for only 3 or 4 days during which
time the young ones were flying freely.

—A. L. MILHINCH, Northam.

Crested Hawks at Mitchell Plateau.—On February 19, 1980, while
acting as a guide on a botanical research trip at Mitchell Plateau in the
north-west Kimberley (Lat. 14° 47’ S., Long. 125 3 48 E.) I saw a group
of three Crested Hawks (Aviceda subcristatci). They were 26 km north
of the AMAX base camp. The birds were disturbed from a roadside tree
(Eucalyptus nesophila). They first flew in circles some 20 m above ground
level, then two of the birds did the tumbling act peculiar to this species.
Time did not allow observation for long and when last seen the birds
were still circling above the same group of trees.

This is only the fourth known sighting of the Crested Hawk at the
Mitchell Plateau—the present sighting and on two other occasions last
“Wet” (November 1978 and February 1979) by myself and once by Mrs.
H. B. Gill in July 1973.

—J. A. SMITH, Maylands.

OBITUARY

A. G. MATHEWS, 1907-1978

Arthur Greenwood Mathews, an Honorary Life Member of this Club
and son of our third President, Wallace H. Mathews, died suddenly of
heart failure at the Royal Perth Hospital on December 14, 1978. He was
born at Tammin on January 23, 1907 but spent most of his early youth
in South Perth, where his parents came to live. Throughout life he was,
like them, a devoted Christian, whose tenets he observed rigidly. However
his good-natured tolerance enabled him to gain the friendship of all
manner of men and he was universally regarded as a good companion.
As a bush naturalist, trained by his father, he was always zestful and
competent and his services were often availed of by professional parties.

After leaving school, the Forrest Street State School, he trained as a
book-keeper and worked at the United Press Ltd. (R. S. Sampson) and
with Flower Davies & Johnson and Mortlocks—-in the days when the
weekly pay envelope included gold sovereigns. I first met Arthur in 1924
at his parents’ home when we were starting the Naturalists Club; Arthur
used to help his father collect the spectacular spoon-winged lacewing,
Chasmoptera hutti, when it could be taken in numbers, but only for a
brief period in December and in a particular South Perth street. See his
father’s article on the species in the Western Australian Naturalist, 1 (2),
1947: 42-44. I was on the literary staff of the United Press then, when
Arthur joined us on the commercial side. At the time Arthur s absorbing
hobby was not natural history but amateur radio. He communicated with
stations overseas. When he was first able to receive the American short
wave station at Schenectady I wrote up his triumph as one of my first
literary contributions to The West Australian! In later years radio, in one
way or another, was always part of Arthur’s life.

Ultimately his religious convictions impelled him to forsake commerce
for the missionary field. After his marriage with Helen Gwendolyn King
he joined the United Aborigines Mission at Badjeling in January 1931.
Then he served al Mt. Margaret. There Helen taught at the school and
reared two notable Aboriginal children, Ben Mason and May Miller.

In 1933 Arthur and Helen moved on to the Warburton Ranges, which
became their principal area of missionary activity. Arthur helped found
the Warburton Mission and at the outset actually walked all the way
there from Laverton. He served at this mission for several years and

242

while there learned the local Aboriginal language and acquired a wide
knowledge of Aboriginal lore. In March 1938 he was transferred to the
mission at Ooldea in South Australia. During his journey from Warburton
to take up his new appointment his well-known resourcefulness saved his
party, of four adults and two young children (Arthur’s small sons) from
an unpleasant desert misadventure. The truck broke a floating axle and the
party was stranded near the Karbce Terrin rockhole about 200 miles from
Laverton. As he was on transfer Arthur had on board his personal effects
which included an old home-built small radio transmitter that would work
off a car battery, but which he normally never carried. With this inade¬
quate equipment he was dubious of being able to establish contact with
the outside world, but he managed it and was able to send out an appeal
for assistance—probably the first time in Western Australia that radio
was used in a bush rescue. Arthur saw the workings of Providence in
this saving of his party from their predicament. Apart from the fortuitous
presence in the truck of his little radio transmitter, the Terrin rockhole
was only two miles away. But it had been dry for at least six months,
until a few days previously a local thunderstorm replenished it with about
a thousand gallons of clear rain water. For food the party was sustained
by damper baked in the ashes and a continuous supply of Mulga Parrots
coming to drink at the rockhole.

Like his contemporary, the late Ivan Carnaby, he was adept at impro¬
visation in emergency. Many tales are told of him of his ingenuity, such
as, for instance, using a kangaroo tail’s skin as a substitute for a car
radiator hose.

At Ooldea the knowledge he was acquiring of Aboriginal customs
brought him to the notice of anthropologists and he was visited by Pro¬
fessor T. Harvey Johnston of Adelaide University with whom he continued
a correspondence on the subject.

He left Ooldea in 1941 and went to Kalgoorlie as wireless operator
for the Flying Doctor Service. In 1942 he enlisted in the 5th Australian
L. of C. Signals and was discharged in 1947. He continued work as wireless
operator at the aerodrome. 1 recall that in 1948 when 1 was engaged on
aerial fisheries surveys with the CSIRO I exchanged greetings with Arthur
from our chartered Anson plane when flying along the south coast. It
was the first time I had contact with him since the days of our youth.
After his radio service he worked in Kalgoorlie on insurance and at the
mines. Here he also engaged in an enterprise in which he was active for
years afterwards—preparing radio scripts for the A.B.C. and giving talks
on the air.

He spoke on a variety of topics—on natural history and on Aboriginal
lore, capitalising on his days at Warburton and Ooldea. He retained copies
of these scripts which are valuable records of first hand observations and
interpretations. Some have been challenged by professional anthropologists
but as honest opinions of an acute field observer they are interesting
nevertheless.

One series of radio interviews, with John Firman, Regional Manager
of the A.B.C. at Kalgoorlie, dealt with the meaning of Aboriginal place
names. “Kalgoorlie”, Arthur explained, was derived from “Kulgoola”
(Colgoola), a plant with large edible pear-shaped fruits, known botanically
as Marsdenia australis* and Arthur described how the Aborigines dealt
with it. The place name “Kamballie” meant a “hot place.” There were
other interviews on Aboriginal customs including a series on funerals
in the Great Victoria Desert, obtaining water supplies from plants in
desert country, camp life of the Aborigines, including an intriguing theory
of selective breeding among these desert people. Some of these programmes
were broadcast over the State system in the series “W.A. Parade”.

In addition to his radio talks Arthur wrote prolifically; for he was
fluent with his pen and had an attractive style. His daughter (Mrs. Joyce
Spicer) said that her father would write on all sorts of subjects to all kinds

* = Leichhardtia australis R.Br.

243

of people from the Premier to the dustman. A week before he died a
letter from him was published in The West Australian on pension rises and
subsidy cuts—a letter most apt and full of commonsense.

While in Kalgoorlie Arthur’s natural history activities were not
restricted to radio talks. He was the president of the Eastern Goldfields
Naturalists’ Club. On his occasional visits to Perth he attended the Club
meetings in the W.A. Museum, when they coincided with his visits, and
exhibited and spoke on Aboriginal artefacts.

One of his other loves was music. In his mission days he owned and
played a small piano accordion and also mastered the gum-leaf. He always
played his church organ as long as his children could remember; he played
for a church meeting the night before he died. He claimed to have had
only one term’s tuition and taught himself the rest.

In March 1959 Arthur left Kalgoorlie to become assistant superin¬
tendent at the Roclands Native Homes, being concerned with children’s
care and the management of agricultural work at the homes. Here he
remained two years.

He then, after many years, returned to live permanently in Perth,
and for a time did insurance work and was employed at the W.A. Govern¬
ment Railways. Here it was that he came to be associated again with the
W.A. Naturalists’ Club. In 1962 when the Club acquired its hall in
Merriwa Street, Nedlands, during the presidency of Len McKenna, Arthur
was most active in renovating it for Club purposes. He went into the
project with characteristic enthusiasm and energy. He organized the bronze
name lettering, “Naturalists’ Hall”, and its placement over the entrance
door. During subsequent meetings, nearly to the time of his death, he
acted as general factotum, working the slide projector, arranging the
seating accommodation, effecting many repairs, and from time to time
delivering lectures to both the senior and junior meetings. When the Club

Fig. 1.—Arthur Mathews ferrying naturalists at Yundurup, October
1974. From left: D. L. Serventy, Arthur Mathews, Philip Bodeker and
Geraldine Gregory.

244

expanded its activities to Yundurup in 1969, during the presidency of
Don Reid, Arthur played a notable role in the several excursions organized
therewith. His motor boat was always available for ferrying Club parties
and individuals to the various delta islands and Peel Inlet.

He became a temporary technical assistant with the CSIRO Division
of Wildlife Research in Perth between June 1963 and February 1965 and
accompanied survey parties to the Canning Stock Route, overland to Alice
Springs, and to Fisher Island in Bass Strait on mutton-bird investigations.

After his CSIRO service he became a freelance wildlife collector
and field assistant. He was engaged by a Harvard University party under
Dr. and Mrs. G. W. Cottrell, the 3rd Harold Hall Expedition of the
British Museum to the Gibson Desert in 1965 and by several field expedi¬
tions of local naturalists, including those led by Julian Ford and Tom
Spence.

He was also active in the Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union.
He participated in the field camp at Kathleen Valley in 1970 and was
a valued assistant to Tom Spence when he hosted the annual dinner
meetings of the RAOU at the Perth Zoo. When the RAOU Atlas Scheme
was initiated Arthur became involved with several aspects of it, including
the transcribing of W. B. Alexander’s field notes into the Scheme’s data
sheets. He took an interest, despite developing ill-health, in the RAOU
bird observatory at Eyre and only two days before his death he had
brought in a donation of books for the observatory’s library.

Arthur left a family of four sons and two daughters, and he was
proud of their achievements—in medicine, scholastics and other callings.

Arthur was always an agreeable field companion, his unfailing good
humour and generosity, supplementing his competent bushcraft, making
an unlorgettablc impression on those who travelled with him. Despite his
inflexible personal code of behaviour he was broadminded enough to
tolerate, without arousing embarrassment, the different attitudes of some
of his companions. A minor example. When two overseas scientists, who
had engaged his services, expressed a wish to include a pre-prandial whisky
and gin among the camp stores, Arthur cheerfully acceded to their desires,
though he himself was a total abstainer. He never intruded his own strict
code of conduct and beliefs to others and respected their beliefs and codes.

Two tributes from former field companions may be quoted:

Tom Spence, Director of the Perth Zoological Gardens, relates a
telling experience he had with Arthur during a desert trip:

During the May holidays of 1970 (I think it was) my small party joined in an
expedition led by Julian Ford across the Gibson Desert westward. This expedition
was beset by many misfortunes which included a potentially very dangerous fire in
my jeep.

Prior to the major incident, we had several minor spinifex fires when the dry
plant material collected in the ill-designed chassis of the Yankee vehicle and was
set alight by the heat from the exhaust. Right in the ruddy middle of the Gibson
Desert. I guess 500 miles from habitation, we were startled to see smoke billowing
from the bonnet of my jeep. We were in difficult soft sand country but I stopped
immediately and throwing up the bonnet, was enveloped in pungent smoke Charac¬
teristic of me, I lost hope on the spot, grabbed the radio and ran a hundred metres
into the spmifex, calling to the others to bring water and the like. The other Arthur
(A. Thorpe) promptly began unloading but Arthur Mathews went straight to the front
of the vehicle and he immediately observed that the cause of the tiro had been
the fact that the main electrical lead had chafed on the body, worn away all the
insulation and had arced to the chassis and had set alight to the rubber casing
of the main lead. His immediate reaction was to seize this main load with his
bare hand, although the hot rubber was bubbling and to saw through it with his
bush knife. Tho fire was then easily put out. I had expected that Arthur Mathews’
hands would be severely burnt, but his prompt action, or his faith in God. certainly
saved him, because he was unscathed!

There we were, holpless, in the wilderness, or so I thought, but Arthur quietly
instructed me to go and gather some mallee roots and mako some toa. Meanwhile,
he rummaged amongst all the rubbish ho had secreted in the jeep and produced
?»<■ l°* derin ? ^olt, 30,dBr - ,lliX and a long length of heavy duty electrical cable.
Within half an hour, he had soldered on new terminals on to a jury main lead,
we had drunk our tea and we were on our way.

Later on the same Journey he proved himself time and time again in a dif¬
ferent kind of adversity. We had something like eleven inches of rain in four days

245

and we were bogged times without number. In one seemingly hopeless incident,
Arthur's special intercession resulted in us getting free when we seemed inextricably
bogged.

Arthur made a deep impression on several of the predominantly
English members of the .British Museum expedition ot 1965, which he
and I accompanied as field collectors. One of them, the ornithologist
Derek Goodwin, told me that it meant a great deal to him that Arthur
was with the party and there was no one he had met in Australia for
whom he had developed warmer feelings. On request he wrote the fol¬
lowing tribute:

When Dr. Serventy wrote asking me to write something about the ( late Arthur
Mathews my first thought was to refuse. How could a mere "pommy", who had
only known him personally for a couple of months or less, presume to write about
someone so pre-eminently Australian as Arthur?

But, on second thoughts. I decided that I did have some qualifications to
do so I met and travelled with Arthur on an expedition in the outback. Expeditions
are, as i 3 well known, notorious for bringing disillusionment as to the other members'
characters and actions, however discreet and thick a veil is drawn over such matters
in their published reports. I can therefore claim to have known Arthur for a revealing
period even if a short one. Also I brought to him, as to Australia, the fresh eye
of a stranger but an interested and, I hope, observant eye Just as I was able to
appreciate the unsurpassable beauty of such common and often locally unappreciated
birds as the Galah and tho Eastern Rosella. so I was able to make my appraisals
of the Australians I met unaffected by any consideration as to how eminent a
position they might or might not hold In the Antipodean ornithological hierarchy.

"Rough diamond", "Someone you’d feel safe to go into the bush with", such
cliches come easily to mind and pen but I believe thoy were true of Arthur. Of
many people the Indian proverb: "We see first the jewels in the ceiling, later
the filth on the floor”, is all too true. It was not true of him. Some people might
be, indeed I believe some were, put off by Arthur's blunt and forthright though
never, in my experience, discourteous manner. I found him unfailingly helpful, kind
ano good-hearted. Rich in experience and knowledge he was remarkably open-
minded for one of his years (and I write as one who is now within a year or two
of the age he was then) and was as happy to accept information as to give it.

Unlike John Donne, I do not feel that every man's death diminishes me but,
in a very real if undefinable way, I feel that Arthur's does. I have a colour slide
of him, holding in focus for me a branch of flowering Grevillea but I do not need
to look at the smiling weather-beaten face alongside the golden blossom to
remember the golden heart of the man,

Fig. 2 .—Arthur Mathews when with the Harold Hall Expedition in 1965.

—Photo by Derek Goodwin

— D.L.S.

246

INDEX

GENERAL

Bald I.

Barrow I.

Bees, Domestic, on native

flora .

Benger Swamp

. 22

Bernier I.

21, 50

Bushfircs . 184, 194, 214

Coffin I.

225

Carnac I.

78, 134

Corrections . 84, 136, 204

Dirk Hartog I.

. 21

Fitzgerald R. National

Park 28

Garden I.

189, 220

Gascoyne Junction .

. 205

Gregory Salt Lake .

Herdsman’s Lake

51, 199

John Forrest National

Park 26

Lake Banganup

Lake Claremont (Butler’s

Swamp) .

. 145

Mistaken I.

. 27

Nullarbor Plain

.2, 36

Obituary—

I. C. Carnaby

. 80

A. G. Mathews

. 242

John Trott

165

Pelsart I., Abrolhos ..

Peron Peninsula, Shark

Bay 21, 43

Prince Regent R. Native Re-

serve .

Reabold Park

Rottnest I. 24, 64, 140, 192, 237

Shark Bay .

21. 43, 54

St. Alouarn I.

.... 55, 84

Wollaston, J. R., bird

notes 19

Wongamine .

. 207

Yundurup

154

ANTHROPOLOGY

Aboriginal Man in the

Nul-

larbor Plain .

.8, 12

Longe-range sightings

bushfires

194

MAMMALS

Antechinomys spenceri 12, 13

A nr echinus apicalis .... 71

Arctocephalus forsteri . 227

Bettongia lesueur . 12, 14

B. panicillata . 12, 13

Bos tauriis 8

Calopryrnnus ccunpestris 12

Camelus dromedarius 8

Canis familidris . 8

Cercartetus concinnus 12, 71

Chaeropus ecaudatus 12

Dasycercus cristicauda .... 12, 13

Dasyurus geoffroyii . 12, 13

Dingo g

Felis earns . 8

Hydromys fuliginosus . 24

Lagorchestes conspicillatus 92
L. hirst us \2

Lasiorhinus latifrons . 4, 12

Leporillus apicalis . 12

L. conditor 12, 13

Macropus brachyurus . 192

M. fuliginosus . 5, 12

M. eugenii 133, 192

Maerotis lagotis 12, 13

Megaleia rufa 5, 12

Mus muse ulus . 6

Neophoca cinerea . 203, 227

Notomys fuse us 12, 13

N. mitchellii 12

Nyctophilus geoffroyii . 6

N. timoriensis . 6

Onychogalea lunata . 12, 13

Oryctolagus cuniculatus 6, 78

Ovis aries 8

Peru males bougainville .... 12, 13

Phascogale cafura 12

Potorous 234, 235

Potorous platyops ... . 12

Pseudocheirus occidentalis 12
Pseudomys australis 43

Ps. desert or . 43

Ps. hermansburgensis 12, 13

Ps. praeconis . 43

Ps. rawlinnae . 12, 13

Sarcophilus harrisii . 12

Sminthopsis crassicaudata 4, 12, 14

Tachyglossus aculeatus 4

Tadarida australis . 6

247

Tarsipes spencerae 71

Trichosurus vulpecula 12

Vulpes vulpes

Zygomaturus trilobus 14

BIRDS

Acanthagenys rufogularis

89, 90, 186, 207, 213
Acanthiza apicalis 18

A. chrysorrhoa . 23, 223

Acanthorhynchus supercilio-

sus . 151, 208, 209, 211

Accipiter fasciatus .

17, 18, 20, 53, 57, 206
Acrocephalus stentoreus 147

Albatross, Yellow-nosed 87, 91

Anas gibberifrons

42, 63, 66, 87. 90, 146, 206

A. castanota 146, 147

A. superciliosa

66, 145, 146, 206, 241

Anhinga ruja . 66, 205

A nous stolidus 64

A. tenuirostris 64, 88, 90

Anthochaera carunculata

150, 182, 208
Anthus novaeseelandiae

18, 50, 67, 88, 90, 97, 100, 101,
103, 106, 191, 192, 207, 223
Aphelocephala nigridncta 80, 207
Aprosmictus erythropterus 56
A pus pad ficus 88, 90

Aquila audax 18, 20, 87, 206
Ardea novaehollandiae 21, 87, 90,
91, 104, 154, 206, 223

A. pacifica . 23, 66

A. sumatrana . 43

Arenaria interpres

51, 53, 63, 87, 90, 93, 223
Artamus cinereus 67, 89, 90, 207
A. leucorhxnchus 42, 89, 90 99,
101, 102, 103, 105
A. personatus 84, 89, 90

A. superciliosus . 84

Aviceda subscristata 242

Avocet .... 63, 113, 206

Ay thy a australis 20, 66, 206

Babbler, Grey-crowned 67

Babbler, White-browed 207

Barnardius zonarius

19, 76, 182, 207, 223, 236
Bee-eater 64, 67, 207, 223

Bell-bird, Crested 207

Bittern, Brown 54

Bittern Little 147

Biziura lobata 20

Booby, Brown 42, 87, 90, 159
Booby, Masked 87, 90

Botaurus poiciloptilus 54

Bower-bird, Western 132

Bristle-bird, Western 28

Brolga 66

Bronzewing, Brush .

18, 190, 191, 223, 227
Bronzewing. Common

20, 221, 222, 223

Bubulcus ibis 23, 199

Budgerygah 88, 90

Bushlark, Singing 160

Butcher-bird, Grey

191, 192, 221, 222, 223

Butcher-bird, Pied 67, 207

Bustard 19, 66, 87, 90

Butorides striata

87, 90, 91, 104, 105
Buzzard, Black-brcasted 87, 90

Cacatua roseicapil/a

88, 90, 96, 107
C. sanguinea 88, 90, 156, 206

C. tenuirostris . 19

Caconumtis pyrrhophanus 18, 222
Calamanthus fuliginosus 28, 51
Calidris alba

53, 63, 88, 90, 95, 104, 109, 223

C. acuminata .

63, 66, 88, 90, 94, 112, 190

C. bairdii . 137

Calidris canutus 88, 90, 94
C. ferruginea 63, 88, 90, 94, 112
C. melanotis 112

C. ruficollis 42, 53, 63, 88, 90, 94,
104, 112, 137, 190, 223

C. subminuta . 109

C. tenuirostris 63, 88, 90, 94, 223
Calyptorhynchus banditti 19, 84
Centropus phasianinus 163

Cereopsis novaehollandiae .

208, 238

Chaetura caudacuta 88, 90, 96
Charadrius cinctus 206

C. leschenaultii 53, 63, 87, 90,
93, 100, 101, 104
C. melanops 66, 206

C. ruficapillus 51, 63, 66, 87, 90,
93, 104, 137, 190, 223
C. veredus 61, 87, 90, 112

Chat, Crimson 21, 90, 98

Chat, Orange 21, 67

Chat, White-fronted

21, 23, 191, 192, 223

Chenonetta jubata 87, 206

Cheramoeca leucosterna

131, 157, 199, 200, 207
Chlidonias hybrida 53, 67

Chlamydera guttata 77, 132
C. maculata 77, 132

Chrysococcyx basalts

88, 90, 96, 100, 101, 102
C. osculans 88, 90

C. plagosus 18, 190

Cinclorhamphus cruralis 89, 90, 98
Cinclosoma cinnamomeum 207

248

Circus assimilis .

87, 90, 92, 100, 131
Cisticola juncidis 133

Cladorhynchus

leucocephalus 1, 87, 93, 154, 237
Climacteris rufa 52

Cockatiel. 207

Cockatoo, White-tailed

Black 19, 84

Colluricincla rufiventris .... 219

Columba livia . 191, 223

Conopophila whitei 162

Coot . 24, 145, 146, 206

Coracina novaehollcindiae .... 21,
89, 90, 97, 101, 102, 103, 207
Corclla, Little 88, 90, 156, 206
Corella, Long-billed 19

Cormorant, Black

17, 87, 90, 205, 223
Cormorant, Little Black

42, 66, 206, 223
Cormorant, Little Pied

66, 146, 147, 190, 205, 223, 241
Cormorant, Pied 51, 63, 87, 90,
91, 104, 106, 135, 190, 205, 223
Corvus bennetti 22, 89, 90

Corvus coronoides .

20, 52, 191, 192, 221, 222, 223

Coturnix pectoralis . 20, 22

Cracticus nigrogularis 67, 207
C. torquatus

191, 192, 221, 222, 223
Crake, Spotted 23, 53, 63

Crake, Spotless 23, 63

Crow 207

Crow, Little 22, 89, 90

Cuckoo, Black-eared 88, 90

Cuckoo, Fan-tailed 18, 223

Cuckoo, Golden Bronze 18, 190
Cuckoo, Horsfield Bronze

88, 90, 96, 100, 101, 102
Cuckoo, Oriental .... .... 74

Cuckoo, Pallid 21, 88, 90,

96, 100, 101, 190, 192
Cuckoo-Shrike, Black-faced

21, 67, 89, 90, 97, 101, 102,

103, 207

Cuculus pallidus 21, 88, 90,

96, 100, 101, 190, 192

C. saturatus . 74

Curlew, Eastern 42, 88, 93, 104
Cygnus atratus .

20, 66, 87, 90, 145, 206

Dacelo gigas 18, 190

D. Icachii 207

Daption capense . 28

Dasyornis longirostris 28

Darter 66, 205

Dicaeum hirundinaceum 25

Diomedea chlororhynchus 87, 91
Diving-Petrel, Kerguelen 133
Dollar-bird 156

Dotterel, Black-fronted 66, 206
Dotterel, Large Sand 53, 63,
87, 90, 93, 100, 101, 104
Dotterel. Oriental 66, 87, 90, 112
Dotterel, Red-capped 51, 63, 66,

87, 90, 93, 104, 137, 190, 223

Dotterel, Red-kneed 206

Dove. Bar-shouldered

88, 90, 96, 100, 102, 103, 106

Dove, Diamond 67, 206

Dove, Laughing 221, 222, 223

Dove, Peaceful 88, 90, 96, 206
Dove, Senegal .... 221, 222, 223
Dm mains no vaehollandiae

19, 20, 205
Duck, Black 61, 145, 146, 206, 241
Duck, Blue-billed 26, 146

Duck, Mountain 21, 190, 206

Duck, Muscovy 146

Duck, Musk . 19

Duck, Pink-eared .

65, 146, 147, 206
Duck, White-eyed 20, 66, 206

Duck, Wood 87, 90, 206

Eagle, Little 206

Eagle, Red-breasted Sea-

87, 90, 92, 101, 104, 105
Eagle, Wedge-tailed

18, 20, 87, 206

Eagle, Whistling 24, 87, 90, 206

Eagle, White-breasted Sea- 18, 43,

50, 63, 87, 90, 92, 101, 104, 227
Egret, Cattle 23, 199

Egret, Little .

22, 42, 87, 90, 91, 206
Egret, White 42, 66, 154, 206

Egretta alba 42, 66, 154, 206

E. garzetta 22, 42, 87, 90, 91, 206
E. sacra 21, 51, 63, 87, 90,
91, 106, 190, 223

Elanus notatus .

21, 87, 92, 101, 102, 106
Emblema oculata 18, 227

E. picta . 89, 90

Emu 19, 20, 205

Emu-Wren, Rufous-crowned 78
Emu-Wren, Southern 26, 78

Eopsaltria gcorgiana . 18, 19

Ephthianura albifrons .

21, 23, 191, 192, 223

E. aurifrons . 21, 67

E. tricolor 21, 90, 98

Eremiornis carteri 89, 90, 97,

99, 100, 101, 102, 106, 107

Esacus magnirostris .

87, 90, 93, 104
Eudyptes chrysocome 52

Eudyptula minor 17, 27, 135, 226
Eupodotis australis 19, 66, 87, 90
Eurostopodus guttatus 67

249

Eurystomus orientalis 156

Falco berigora 87, 90, 92, 101

F. cenchroides 18, 87, 90, 93,

100, 101, 102, 190, 206, 233
F. longipennis

20, 21, 50, 87, 90, 206
F. peregrinits 18, 42, 55

F. subniger 25

Falcon, Black 25

Falcon, Brown 87, 90, 92, 101
Falcon, Little .

20, 21, 50, 87, 90, 206

Falcon, Peregrine 18, 42, 55

Fantail, Grey 18, 191, 192,

219, 221, 222, 223

Fantail-Warbler, Streaked .... 133

Field Wren 28, 51

Finch, Chestnut-breasted 51

Finch, Painted 89, 90

Finch, Zebra 89, 90, 98,

101, 102, 103, 106, 207

Firetail, Red-eared 18, 227

Fregcita arid 87, 90

Frigate-bird, Lesser 87, 90

Fulica atra 24, 145, 146, 206

Galah 88, 90, 96, 207

Gallinago stenura 157

Gal linn la tenebrosa 147

G. ventralis 24

Gannet, Australian 63

Geopelia cuneata 67, 206

G. burneralis 88, 90, 96, 100,

101, 102, 103, 106
G. striata 88, 90, 96, 206

Gerygone ftisca

22, 192, 221, 222, 223
Glareola maldivarum

23, 63, 112
Gliciphila mdanops 208

Glossopsitta concinna 236

G. porphyrocephala 18, 210, 236
Godwit, Bar-tailed

53, 63, 88. 90, 94, 104, 223
Godwit, Black-tailed

23, 63, 88, 90, 94, 104, 113
Goose, Cape Barren 202, 238

Goose, Maned 87, 90, 206

Goshawk, Australian

(Brown) 17, 18, 20, 53, 206
Grallina cyanoleuca

67, 89, 90, 99, 103, 207, 223
Grebe, Little

66, 87. 90, 136. 147, 205, 241
Grebe, Crested 147

Grebe, Hoary-headed 147, 205

Greenshank

63, 66, 88, 90, 94, 104, 112, 206
Greenshank, Little 23, 26, 42
Grus rubricunda 66

Gull, Pacific 50, 63, 227

Gull, Silver 18, 21, 50, 63, 78,
88, 90, 95, 100, 101, 103, 104,
106, 134, 145, 146, 147, 190,
221, 222, 223, 227
Gymnorhina dorsalis

20, 191, 218, 219
G. tibicen 207

Haematopus fuliginosus 18, 28,
42, 50, 55, 63, 87, 90, 93, 104,
106, 223, 227
//. ostralegus 50, 63, 87, 90,
93, 101, 104, 106, 190, 223
Halcyon chloris . 97, 159

//. pyrrhopygia 67

//. sancta . 88, 90. 97, 101, 104,

105, 190, 207, 223, 241
Haliaectus leucogaster 18, 43,
50, 63, 87, 90, 92, 101, 104, 227

Haliastur indus

87, 90, 92, 101, 104, 105

H. sphenurus 24, 87, 90, 206
Hamirostra melanosterna 87, 90
Harrier, Spotted

87, 90, 92, 100, 131

Hawk, Brown 87, 90, 92, 101
Hawk, Crested 242

Heron, Great-billed 43

Heron, Mangrove

87, 90, 91, 104, 105
Heron, Pacific 23, 66

Heron, Reef 21, 51, 63, 87, 90,
91, 106, 190, 223
Heron, White-faced 21, 87, 90,
91, 104, 154, 206, 223
Heron, White-necked 23, 66

Hinumtopus hinumtopus

87, 93, 145, 206
//. leucocephalus 67, 113, 146
Hirundapus caudacutus 88, 90, 96
Hirundo neoxena 18, 19, 50,
64, 88, 90, 97, 100, 101, 102,
103, 106, 190. 207, 221, 222,
223, 227

Honeycater, Brown 208, 209, 211
Honeyeater, Brown-headed

208, 209, 211
Honeyeater, Grey 162

Honeyeater, New Holland

18, 126, 150, 227
Honeyeater, Singing 51, 89, 90,
98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 151,
186. 191, 192. 207, 213, 221,
222, 223

Honeyeater, Spiny-cheeked

89. 90. 186, 207, 213
Honeyeater, Tawny-crowned 208
Honeyeater, White-cheeked

208, 209, 211
Honeyeater, White-naped 158
Honeyeater, White-plumed 67, 207
Honeyeater, Yellow-plumed 208

250

Hydroprogne caspia 64, 66, 88,
90, 95, 100, 101, 104, 106, 135,
190, 221, 222, 223

Ibis, Glossy
Ibis, Straw-necked
Ibis, White
Ixo brych us mi nut us

Jabiru

Kestrel

.... 23

206
23, 154
147

42, 66

18, 87, 90, 93, 100,
101, 102, 190, 206, 223
Kingfisher, Mangrove 97, 159
Kingfisher, Red-rumpcd 67

Kingfisher, Sacred 88, 90, 97, 101,
104, 105, 190, 207, 223, 241
Kite, Black-breasted 87, 90

Kite, Black-shouldered

21, 87, 92, 101, 102, 106
Kite, Square-tailed 87, 90

Kite, Whistling 24, 87, 90, 206
Knot 88, 90, 94

Knot, Great 63, 88, 90, 94, 233

Kookaburra . 18, 190

Kookaburra, Blue-winged 207

Lacustroica whitei 162

La luge sueurii 23, 67, 89, 90
Landrail, Banded 63

Lams novaehollandiae 18, 21, 50,
63, 78, 88, 90, 95, 100, 101,
103, 104, 106, 134, 145, 146,
147, 190, 221, 222, 223, 227
L. pacificus 50, 63, 227

Leptolophus hollandicus 207
Lichmera indistincta 208, 209, 211
Limicola falcinellus 223

Limosa tapponica 53, 63, 88,

90, 94, 104, 223

L. limosa ....

23, 63, 88, 90. 94, 104, 113
Lonchura castancothorax 51

Lophoictinia isura 87, 90

Lorikeet, Musk 236

Lorikeet, Purple-crowned

18, 210, 236
Lorikeet, Rainbow 75

Magpie, Black-backed 207

Magpie, Western 20, 191, 219
Magpie-Lark

67, 89, 90, 99, 103, 207, 223
Malacorhynchus

membranaceus 65, 146, 147, 206
M alums clegans 74, 136

M. lamberti 51, 53

M. leucotiotus 207

M. leucopterns 89, 90, 98, 99,

100, 101, 102, 107

Manorina flavigula . 207

Martin, Fairy 88, 90, 207

Meliphaga ornata 208

A7. pcnicillata . 67, 207

M. virescens . 51, 89, 90, 98,

100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 151,
186, 191, 192, 207, 213, 221,

222, 223

Melithreptus brevirostris

208, 209, 211
M. lunatus 158

Melopsittacus undulatus 88, 90
Mcrops ornatus 64, 67, 207, 223
Miner, Yellow-throated 207

Mira fra javanica 160

Mistletoe-bird 25

Moorhen, Dusky 147

Mortis sc rrat or . 63

Motacilla alba 56

Mudlark .

67, 89, 90, 99, 103, 207, 223

Oceanites oceanicus 63, 87, 90
Occanodroma leucorhoa 132
Ocyphaps lophotes 67, 206

Oreoica gutturalis 207

Osprey 43, 50, 63, 87, 90, 92,
100, 101. 104, 106, 190. 223
Owl, Barn 88, 90, 96

Owl. Boobook 67, 88, 90, 96
Oxyura australis 26, 146

Ovstercatchcr, Pied 50. 63, 87,

90, 93. 101, 104. 106, 190. 223
Oystercatcher, Sooty 18, 28, 42,

50, 55, 63. 87, 90, 93, 104, 106,

223, 227

Pack xccphala pcctoralis

18, 191, 192, 221. 222, 223
P. rufiventris

192, 219, 221, 222, 223
Pandion haliaetus 43, 50, 63,

87, 90, 92, 100, 101, 104, 106.

190, 223

Pardalote, Red-browed 67

Par da lot us rnbricatus 67

Parrot, King 19, 223

Parrot, Mulga 243

Parrot, Port Lincoln

19, 76. 182, 207, 223, 236

Parrot, Red-capped 19, 223
Parrot. Red-winced 56

Parrot, Rock 21. 190, 192, 227
Parrot. Twcntyeichl

19, 76, 182. 207, 223. 236
Pelagodroma marina 28, 63. 227
Pelican, Australian 20, 42, 66,

87. 90, 91. 104, 147, 205
Pelecanus conspicillatus 20, 42,

66, 87. 90, 91, 104, 147, 205
Pelecanoides cxsul 133

Penguin, Crested 52

Penguin, Little 17, 27, 135, 226
Penguin. Rockhoppcr 52

Petrel, Cape . 28

Petrel, Great-winged

17, 28, 225, 226

251

Petrel, White-faced Storm-

28, 63, 227
Petrochelidon ariel 88, 90, 207
P. nigricans 19, 88, 90, 97, 100,
101, 102, 157, 190, 191, 223
Petroica goodenovii 22, 192

P. multicolor 19, 219

Phaethon lepturus . 74

P. rubricauda 63

Phalacrocorax carbo

17, 87, 90, 205, 223
P. melanoleucos 66, 146, 147,
190, 205, 241, 223
P. sulcirostris 42, 66, 223

P. varius 51, 63, 87. 90, 91,
104, 106, 135, 190, 205, 223
Phalarope, Red-necked 237

Phalaropus lobatus 237

Phaps chalcoptera

20, 221, 222, 223
P. elegans 18, 190, 191, 223, 227
Pheasant-Coucal 163

Philomachus pugnax 113

Phylidonyris nigra 208, 209, 211

P. novaehollandiae .

18, 126, 150, 227
Phylloscopus borealis 200

Pigeon, Crested .67, 206

Pigeon, Domestic 190, 223

Pipit, Australian 18, 50, 67, 88,
90, 97, 100, 101, 103, 106, 191.

192, 207, 223
Platalea flavipes 24, 206

P. regia . 22, 66

Platycercus icterotis 19

Plegadis falcinellus 23

Plover, Banded 190, 223

Plover, Eastern Golden

53. 87, 90, 93, 104, 112

Plover, Grey 42, 51, 53, 63,
87, 90, 93, 104, 190, 223
Plover, Masked 66

Pluvialis dominica

53, 87, 90, 93, 104, 112

P. squatarola

42, 51, 53, 63, 104, 190, 223
Podiceps cristatus 147

P. novaehollandiae

66, 87, 90, 136, 147, 205, 241
P. poliocephalus 147, 205

Poephila guttata 89, 90, 98,
101, 102, 103, 106, 207
Pomatostomus temporalis 1, 67
P. superciliosus 207

Porphrio porphyrio 146

Porzana fluminea 23, 53, 63
P. tabuensis 23, 63

Psephotus varius 243

Psophodes occidentalis . 207

Pratincole, Australian .

Pratincole, Oriental 23, 63, 1 12

Pterodroma macroptera

17, 28, 225, 226

Puff inns assimilis 55, 62, 227

P. carneipes . 227

P. pad ficus .

62, 78, 87, 90, 91, 106, 135
Purpureicephalus spurius 19, 223

Quail, Brown 87, 90

Quail, Painted 20

Quail, Stubble 20, 22

Quail,Thrush, Cinnamon 207

Rainbow-bird 64, 207, 223

Rallus philippensis 63

Raven .

20, 52, 191, 192, 221, 222, 223

Recurvirostra

novaehollandiae 63, 1 13, 206
Reed-Warbler 147

Rhipidura fuliginosa

18, 191, 192, 219, 221, 222, 223

R. leucophrys

19, 191, 192, 207, 221, 222, 223
Robin, Red-capped 22, 192

Robin, Scarlet
Robin, White-breasted
Rosclla, Western

19, 219
18, 19
19

Sanderling 53, 63, 88, 90,

95, 104, 109, 223
Sandpiper, Baird’s 137

Sandpiper, Broad-billed ^23

Sandpiper, Common 23, 26, 42, 53,
63; 88, 94, 104, 112, 206, 223

Sandpiper, Curlew

63, 88, 90, 94, 112

Sandpiper, Marsh 23, 26, 42

Sandpiper, Pectoral 112

Sandpiper, Sharp-tailed

63, 66, 88, 90, 94, 112, 190
Sandpiper, Terek 88, 90, 94

Sandpiper, Wood 66, 88, 112

Scrub-Wren, Spotted 18, 192

Sericornis maculatus 18, 192

Shearwater, Fleshy-footed 227
Shearwater, Little 55, 62, 227

Shearwater, Wedge-tailed

62, 78, 87, 90, 91, 106, 135
Shrike-Thrush, Western 219

Silvereye, Western 18, 22, 25,

64, 191, 192, 221, 222, 223, 227
Silvereye, Yellow 89, 90, 98, 105
Skua, Southern 190

ipe, Pintail

157

Spinebill. Western

151, 208, 209, 211
Spinifcx-bird 89, 90, 97, 99,
100, 101, 102, 106, 107
Spoonbill, Royal 22, 66

Spoonbill, Yellow-billed 24, 206

252

Stercorarius skua . 190

Sterna anaethetus 64, 78, 90
S. bengalensis 88, 90, 96, 104
5. bcrgii 18, 42, 51, 64, 78, 88,
90, 95, 106, 135, 190, 223, 227
S. dougallii 64, 88, 90, 118

S. fuscata . 64

.S', hirundo 27, 53, 88, 90, 95, 134

S. leucoptera . 27

S. nereis 53, 64, 65, 88, 90,
95, 104, 106, 190, 223
S. nilotica 26, 67, 88, 90, 95, 104
Stilt, Banded .... 87, 93, 154, 237
Stilt, White-headed

67, 87, 93, 113, 145, 146, 206
Stiltia Isabella 27, 67, 88, 90
Stint, Long-toed 109

Stint, Red-necked 42, 53, 63,
88, 90, 94, 104, 109, 112, 157,
190, 223

Stipiturus malachurus 26, 78

S. ruficeps . 78

Stone-Curlew, Beach ....

87, 90, 93, 104
Stork, Black-necked 42, 66

Storm-Petrel, Leach’s 132

Storm-Petrel, White-faced

28, 63, 227
Storm-Petrel, Wilson’s 63, 87, 90
Streptopelia chinensis 190, 192

S. senegalensis .

190, 192, 221, 222, 223

Sula dactylatra . 87, 90

S. leucogaster 87, 90, 159

Swallow, Welcome .... 18, 19, 50,
64, 88, 90, 97, 100, 101, 102,
103, 106, 190, 207, 221, 222,
223, 227

Swallow, White-backed

131, 157, 199, 200, 207

Swamphcn .... . 146

Swan, Black .

20, 66, 87, 90, 145, 206
Swift, Fork-tailed 88, 90

Swift, Spine-tailed 88, 90, 96

Synoicus ypsilophorus 18, 87, 90

Tadorna tadornoides 21, 190, 206
Taeniopygia castanotis 89, 90,
98, 101, 102, 103, 106, 207
Tattler, Grey-tailed

53, 63, 88, 93, 100, 101, 223

Teal, Chestnut . 146, 147

Teal, Grey .

42, 63, 66, 87, 90, 146, 206
Tern, Bridled 66, 78, 88, 90

Tern, Caspian 64, 66, 88, 90,

95, 100, 101, 104, 135, 190,
221, 222, 223

Tern, Common .

27, 53, 88, 90, 95, 134

Tern, Crested 18, 42, 51, 64,
78, 88, 90, 95, 106, 135, 190,
223, 227

Tern, Fairy 53, 64, 65, 88, 90,
95, 104, 106, 190, 223
Tern, Gull-billed

26, 67, 88, 90, 95, 104

Tern, Lesser Crested .

88, 90, 96, 104
Tern, Roseate ... 64, 88, 90, 118

Tern, Sooty . 64

Tern, Whiskered 53, 67

Tern, White-winged Black 27

Thornbill, Broad-tailed . 18

Thornhill, Yellow-rumped 23, 223
Threskiornis molucca 23, 154

T. spinicollis . 206

Tree-creeper, Rufous .... .... 52

Tree-Martin 19, 88, 90, 97
100, 101, 102, 157, 190, 223
Trichoglossus haematodus 75
Triller, White-winged

23, 67, 89, 90
Tringa brevipes 53, 63, 88,

93, 100, 101, 223

T. glareola . 66, 88, 112

T. hypoleucos 23, 26, 42, 53,
63, 88, 94, 104, 112, 206, 223
T. nebularia 63, 66, 88, 90, 94,
104, 112, 206

T. stagnatalis . 23, 26, 42

Tropic-bird, Red-tailed . 63

Tropic-bird, White-tailed 74

Turnix varia 20

Turnstone .

51, 53, 63, 87, 90, 93, 223

Turtle-Dove, Indian 190, 192

Turtle-Dove, Senegal 190, 192

Turtle-Dove, Spotted 190, 192

Tyto alba 88, 90, 96

Vanellus miles
V. tricolor

.... 66
190, 223

Wagtail, Pied

Wagtail, Willy .

19, 191, 192, 207, 221, 222, 223

Warbler, Arctic . 200

Warbler, Western ....

22, 192, 221, 222, 223
Wattle-bird, Red .... 150, 182, 208

Wedgebill . 207

Whimbrcl .. 51, 88, 93, 104, 223
Whimbrel, Little 88

Whistler, Golden .

18, 191, 192, 221, 222, 223

Whistler, Rufous .

192, 219, 221, 222, 223
Whiteface, Banded 84, 207

Willy Wagtail .

19, 191, 192, 207, 221, 222, 223
Wood-Swallow, Black-faced

67, 89, 90, 207

253

Wood-Swallow, Masked

84, 89, 90

Wood-Swallow,

White-breasted 42, 89,

90, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105
Wood-Swallow, White-browed 84
Wren, Black-and-white

(Pied) 89, 90, 98, 99, 100,
101, 102, 107

Wren, Field 28, 51

Wren, Red-winged 74, 136

Wren, Variegated 51, 53

Wren, White-winged 207

Xenorhynchus asiaticus 42, 66

Xenus cinereus 88, 90, 94

Zonifer tricolor . 190, 223

Zosterops gouldi 18, 22, 25,

64 ,191, 192, 221, 222, 223, 227
Z. lutea 89, 90, 98, 105

REPTILES

Aclys coneinna . 240

Amphibolnrus cristatus 38, 41

A. fordi . 41

A. isolepis . 38

A. minimus 38

A. nullarbor 7, 11, 38

A. pictus . 38, 41

A. reticulatus 39

Aprasia inaurita 7, 9, 38

Aspidites ramsayi 40, 41

Cryptoblcpharus carnabyi 83

C. labillardieri 226

C. virgatus . 39

Ctenotus atlas 39

C. sc/iomburgkii 39

C. uber . 7, 9, 11, 39, 41

Delma australis 240

Demansia nuchalis 40, 192

Denisonia gouldii 40

D. pallidiceps 75

D. suta . 75

Diplodactylus ciliaris 37

D. galeatus 38

D. maini 37

D. pulclter 37

D. v it tat us 38

Diporiphora reginae 41

D. winneckei 41

Egernia 7, 10

E. kingi . 55, 226

E. multiscutata . 39

Gehyra variegata 38

Hemiergis peronii 226

Heteronotia binoei 7, 38

Lerista clegans 240

L. frosti 39

L. labialis . 39

L. muelleri 39

L. patersoni 240

Menetia greyii 39

Moloch horrid us 39, 41, 161

Morcthia adelaidensis 7, 10, 11, 39

M. boulengeri . 39

M. butleri 40

M. obscura . 40

Notechis scut at us 78, 192

Oxyuranus scutcllatus . 134

Phyllodactylus marmoratus

38, 226

PhyHunts milii 7, 9, 10, 38, 41

Pseudechis australis . 40, 79

Pseudonaja modesta 40

P. nuchalis 40, 192

Pygopus nigreps . 240

Rhynchelaps bertholdi 40

Sphcnomorphus richardsonii 7, 40

Tiliqua occipitalis 40, 41

Trachydosaurus rugosus 7, 40

Trachysaurus rugosus 7, 40

T\mpanocryptis lineata

7, 9, 10, 11, 39, 41
T. paryiceps 240

Typhlina australis 40, 240

T. bituberculata 7, 10, 40

Varan us gouldii 39

AMPHIBIA

Neobatrachus centralis 37

FISHES

Craterocephalus

pauciradiatus 158, 204

INSECTA

Adelium 218

Apis me lli I era 1, 154

Arotrophora arcuatalis 152

Atractocerus kreuslerae 183

Be the Hum 183

Brachyponera 216

Campanotus 152, 216

Castiarina 57

Catasarcus 182

Chasmoptera hutti 242

Clielaner 216

Ciampa 183

Cisseis 57

254

Cometopsylla

Coptocercus .

183

Coptotermes acinaciform

es .

C. michaelseni .

Crematogaster .

152,

217

C ryptophasa uni punctata

183

Culama

183

Diadoxtis erythrurus

228

D. jungi .

228

D. sea laris .

228

Diplacodes haematodes

201

Dolichoderus

152

Ethon breve ....

198

Eurymeliadae

184

Glycaspis .

Haplonyx tibialis

181

Iphiaulix .

182

Iridomyhmex .

216

/. conifer .

152

/. purpureas .

152

Melopborus .

216

Meranoplus .

216

Myositta .

152

Nepticula .

183

Ore us .

218

Orthetrum caledonicum

201

Orygia

218

Paropsis

183,

218

Perga .

183

Phoracantha impavida ....

182,

183

Phylacteophaga froggatti

183

Poly rack is

216,

218

Rhytidoponera

216,

218

Stigmacros .

216,

217

Stigmodera heros

238

S. mustelamajor

238

S. picta

236

Tapi noma

216

Themognatha elegans

Xiphomyrmex 216,

217,

218

ARACHNIDA

A name .

217

A nidiops villosus

115

Araneus heroine

236

Delena cancerides

218

Elassocttenus bar pax ....

217

Gasteracantha tninax

Ixeuticus Candidas

217

Limnochares

216

Lycosa immensuata

.... 217

L. srrata .

216, 218

Miturga

217

Nicodamus bicolor .

121

Schizomida

236

Storena

216

Urodacus hartmeyeri ..

.... 240

U. novaehollandiae .

240

MYRIAPODA

Chilopoda .

217, 218

Cryptops .

.... 218

CRUSTACEA

Cherax preissii .

.... 67

Isopoda

.... 217

ONYCHOPHORA

Ooperipatatus insignis ....

.... 35

Peripatoides gilesii .

.... 29

MOLLUSCA

Angasella oligopleura

.... 54

Bothriembryon barretti

... 54

Melaraphe scabra .

105

Sinumelon nullarboricum

.... 54

Terebralia palustris

105

T. sulcata

105

Theba pisana . 24,

54, 140

PLANTS

Acacia acuminata

160, 199,

202

A. aneura 160,

199, 202,

230

A. bivenosa .

100

A. blakelyi

160

A. cyclops

160

A. heteroclita

221

A. microbotrva

202

A. Oswaldii

160

A. pulchella .

A. rostellifera .

79, 160, 189,

192, 220,

221

A. saligna .

160

A. sowdenii ....

. 3

, 12

A. stenophy/la

160

A . tetragonophylla

. 160,

162

A. trachycarpa

77. 156,

160

A. victoriae

160

Acanthocarpus ....

213

255

A. preissii . 142

Actinodium cunninghamii 61

Adenanthos argyrea 209

A. cygnortim 209, 210, 211

A. c uneat a 28

A. filifolia 150

Agrostis . 98, 100

Aniyema benthamii 77

A. fitzgeraldii . 160

A. gibberulum 198

A. preissii 160

A. sanguineum 198

Anabaena 194

Anarthria gracilis 28

A. pro lifer a . 28

Andersonia caerulea 62

Anigozanthus humilis 209

Angianthus cunninghamii 57

Anthocercis viscosa 225, 226

Anthociras obovata 225

Apium prostratum 226

A rmillaria . 181

Arundo donax .

Asphodel us fistulosus 24, 142

Asplenium obtiisatum 123

Astroloma microcalyx 150

A vicennia 98, 105

A. marina . 158

Banksia ashbyi 78, 186

B. attenuata .

153. 178, 209, 210, 211

B. baueri . 73, 152

B. blechnifolia 73, 150

B. candolleana 73

B. cay ley i . 73

B. coccinea . 126

B. dryandroides 72

B. elder ana 73

B. grandis . 153, 178

B. ilicifolia 153

B. littoralis . 214, 218

B. lullfitzii . 73

B. media . 151, 152

B. menziesii . 153, 178

B. nutans . 73

B. petiolaris 72

B. pilostylis 73

B. prionotes 129

B. prostrata 73

B. quercifolia 152

B. speciosa 152

B. sphaerocarpa 73, 193

B. violacea . 152

Baumea articulum 172

B. juncea . 172

Beaufortia anisandra 151

Boronia ternata

Butomus umbellatus 171

Caesalpinia bonduc 75

Callitris 228, 230

C. endlicheri .... 230

C. huegelii 230

C. preissii 220, 221

C. verrucosa . 230, 231, 232

Calothamnus quadrifidus

126, 209, 210, 211
C. sanguineus 151, 209, 210. 21 1
Calytrix muricata 78

Carpobrotus virescens 225, 226
Casuarina campestris

C. fraserana

C. glauca

C. humilis

Chorizandra .

Cladiunt junceum
Clerodendrum lanceolatum
Codonocarpus cotinifolius
Coelorachis rottboellioides
Comesperma virgatum
Conospermum dorrienii
Con osty lis an drostemm a
argentea
Cupressus

C. macrocarpa lambertiana 230
Cylindrospermum
Cyperus

230, 231
.. 178

160
28, 57
172
. 172

77
25
163
62
60

213
228
230
194
171, 172

186

Da viesia rev ersi folia
Dam pier a

D. coronata

D. hederacea

D. sericantha
Diplolaena microcephala
Dryandra arborea 212, 213

D. cuneata 126, 151

D. mucronata 73

D. sessilis 15, 208, 210, 211

Elaeis guineensis 75

Elaphomyces cervinus 235

Erythrina vespertilio 98, 102, 132

Eucalyptus argillacea 198

E. buprestium . 126

E. burracoppinensis 213

E. camaldulensis 103, 198

E. carnabyi ... 81

E. cylindrocarpa 213

E. decipiens 126

E. diversicolor 210

E. drummondii 81, 209, 210, 211

E. foecunda 57, 202

E. gomphocephala

103, 145, 174, 191, 202

E. latifolia 165

E. lehmanniana 150

E. leptophylla 57, 202

E. leptopoda 213

E. loxophleba 202

E. macrocarpa

81, 150, 209, 210, 211

E. macrocera 150

E. microtheca 160, 198

E. occidentalis 150

E. patellaris 96, 102

256

E. platypus . 103

E. preissiana . 126

E. ebbanoensis . 213

E. sargentii . 202

E. tcrminalis . 198

E. tectifica . 165

E. tetradonta . 198

E. tetragona . 126

E. uncinata . 150

E, wandoo . 209

Evandra aristata . 68

Exocarpos aphyllus . 160

Ficus platypoda . 77

Gahnia trifida . 171

Gr evil lea . 246

G. brownii . 151

G. eriostachya . 78, 230

G. nematophylla . 199

G. pyramidalis . 199

G. rogersoniana . 186

G. stenobotrya . 198

G. striata . 199

G. thelemanniana . 57

G. wickhamii . 199

Hake a lorea . 199

H. recurva . 199

H. sub ere a .... . 98

H. varia . 68

Hardenbergia comptoniana 57

Hibbertia cuneiformis . 226

II. hypericoides . 57, 62

II y bant bus calycinus 62

Hypolaena .... . 170

Isopogon formosus 62

Isotoma hypocrateriformis 62

Jasminum lineare . 77

Juncus bufonius 170

J. holoschoenus . 170

./. kraussi . 170

J. maritimus . 170

J. pallidus . 170

Kunzea recurva . 68

Lambertia ericifolia . 150

L. inermis . 126

L. uni flora . 150

Lavatera plebia . 226

Lemna oligorrhiza . 24

Lepidium folio sum . 226

Lepidobolus . 170

Lcpidosperma effusion .... 171

L. gladiatum . 171

L. longitudinale . 171

Leptocarpus . 170

Lcptospermum . 28

Lepyrodia . 170

Leschenaultia biloba . 61

L. linarioides . 60

L. tubiflora . 61

Leucopogon revolutus . 226

Livistorna eastonii . 163

Lobelia alata . 226

Lomandra hastilis . 171

L. odora . 171

L. ordii .... . 171

L. purpurea . 171

Luzula meridionalis . 170

Lysiana casuarinae 160

Machaerina juncea . 172

Macrozamia riedlei .

215, 217, 218, 219

Manilkara kauki . 75

Melaleuca lanceolata .

189, 192, 220, 221, 238

M. leptoclada 68

M. pauperiflora . 238

M. preissiana . 214

M. rhaphiophylla . 145

M. strict a . 28

Mesophellia glauca . 236

Mui riant ha hassellii . 150

Myoporum insulare . 238

Nematolepis phebalioides 154

Nostoc . 194

Nostochopsis . 194

Nuytsia floribunda 209

Olearia axillaris . 142

Oxylobium atropurpureum .. 135

O. lane eolation . 226

Patersonia occidentalis 198

Pelargonium australe 226

P. capitation . 57

Petrophile linearis . 62

P. longifolia . 62

Phragmites australis . 172

P. communis . 172

P. karka 172

Phytophthora cinnamoni 181

Pileanthus peduncularis 78

Pilostyles hamiltonii 135

Pimelca physodes . 126

Finns 229, 230

Pittosporum phytliraeoides 98, 202

Planchonia careya . 165

Plectrachne . 213

Foa . 225

Polyporus tumulosus . 120

Potoromyces loculatus . 235

Restio . 170

Rhagodia radiata . 226

Rhizanthella gardneri 166

Santalum acuminatum 15, 46, 160

Scaevola crassifolia . 226

Schoenus 172

Scirpus lacustris . 145

S. nodosus . 68 , 172, 226

Securinega melanthesoides 77

257

Solatium nigrum 25

Spinifex longifolius 97

Sporobolus virginious 226

Stipa . 225

Stylidium adnatum 226

Stypandra grandiflora 226

Suaeda australis 154

Tamarindus itidica 75

Tetratheca formani 213

T. harperi . 213

Theme da australis .... 163

Thysanotus multiflorus 62

Trachyandra divaricata 142

Trichodesma . 98, 100

Trichosanthes cucumerina

Triodia . 100, 102, 106, 132

Typha angustifolia 24, 170

T. domingensis 170

T. latifolia 170

T. orientalis 24, 145, 170

V erticordia 61

V. forrestii 78

V. grand is . 61

V. huegelii 61

Wollea 194

Xanthorrhoea preissii

215, 217, 218, 219

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbott, Ian 21, 64, 79, 189

Baker, G. F. U. 52

Balme, Jane 144, 233

Binsted, G. 77

Black, R. 64, 140

Boden, R. W. 238

Borthwick, J. A. 133

Britten, N. .... 170

Broadhurst, N. 132

Brooker, M. G. 2, 36

Browne, R. S. 121

Burbidge, A. A. 42

Burbidge, A. H. 126, 199, 241

Butler, W. H. 56, 134, 158

Chapman, G. 52, 74

Coates, D. J. 126

Collins, B. G. 207

Corfe, B. 53

Curry, P. J. .

109, 113, 137, 157, 162
Curry, S. J. . .... 174

Davies, S. J. J. F. 220

Dell, John 200, 209

Dortch, C. E. 194

Douglas, A. M. 1

Dunlop, J. N. 118

Fewster, A. 25

Ford, Julian . 53, 54, 78

Fox, J. E. D. 174

Fuller, P. J. 42

Garstone, R. 62

Griffin, P. 236, 241

Griffiths, K. 25, 158

Gueho, Nicole 64

Halse, S. A. 159

Harold, G. 240

Hawkeswood, T. J. 160, 198,

199, 201, 228, 236, 238

Hilton, R. N. 120, 235

Holm, Eigil 60, 71

Hopper, S. D. 126, 186

Howard, Max 50, 205

Hussey, B. M. J. 75

Johnson, M. S. 140

Johnstone, R. E.

27, 56, 65, 113, 134, 157
Joseph, Leo 26

Keighery, G. J. 150, 154, 155, 212

Kendrick, G. W. 54

Kcnneally, K. F. 67, 136, 157, 165
Knott, B. 145

Kolichis, N. 51, 52, 131, 132, 225

Lamont, Byron 193

Lane, S. G. 28, 55, 84, 135

Langedyk, W. 214

Lantzke, I. 57

Ling, J. K. 204

Main, B. Y. 115, 236

Mcnkhorst, P. 163

McKean, J. L. 133, 200

McKenzie, N. L. 159

McMillan, P. 57

Milhinch, A. L. 131, 242

Millard, M. T. 25

Mills, M. B. 15, 46

Moore, L. A. 28

Morris, K. D. 145

Muir, B. G. 128, 194

Mueller, Otto 241

Nicholls, C. A. 74

Nichols, O. G. 76

Oldham, Ray 154

Pashby, A. S. 214

Perry, D. H. 25, 26

Perry, K. D. 74

Peterson, M. 201, 228

Philipp, G. A. 161, 240

Pirkopf, K. C.

67, 136, 157, 165

Rcbeira, C. P. S. 27

Reid, D. A. 120

Reid, D. G. 120

258

Richter, C. M. 131

Roe, R. 202

Rolfe, J. K. 159

Rowley, Ian 74

Saunders, D. A. 236

Scott, J. K. 151

Sedgwick, E. H. 19, 22, 85

Serventy, D. L. 80, 165, 242

Shannon, T. G. D. 199

Smith, G. G. . 123, 169

Smith, G. T. 17, 28, 225, 236

Smith, J. A. 160, 165, 242

Smith, L. A. 56, 65, 75, 76

Sokolowski, R. E. S. 156

Spence, Tom . 74

Spencer, Lesley 43

Storr, G. M. 157, 203, 240

Turner, J. . 133

Van der Lande, Virginia 29

Watts, C. H. S. 43

Whelan, R. J. 214

Wombey, J. C. 36

259

S <o?i

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